This Week in the United States - The American Civil War

This Week's Historical Theme: The United States

2 June 1865

A significant event throughout the history of the United States is the end of the American Civil War. The American Civil War (1861-65) was a war between the United States, and the 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The conflict started because of the uncompromising differences between the free states and the slave states concerning their views on what power the government should have to prohibit slavery. When Republican Abraham Lincoln became president in 1860, he pledged to keep slavery out of the territories. Subsequently, 7 slave states in the deep South seceded from the Union forming the Confederate States of America. The Lincoln administration refused to recognise the legitimacy of secession fearing it would discredit democracy and fragment the United States into several small, conflicting countries.

On 12 April 1861, at Fort Sumter in Charleston Bay, the Confederate army open fired on the federal garrison, claiming the fort as their own, and triggering the start of the Civil War. In response, Abraham Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for 75,000 volunteer soldiers to quell the Southern "insurrection", and 4 more slave states seceded and joined the Confederacy. Four years later, on 2 June 1865, Confederate General Edmund Kirby Smith, commander of Confederate forces west of the Mississippi, signed the surrender terms offered by Union negotiators. Smith's surrender is generally regarded as the formal end to the American Civil War as the last Confederate army ceased to exist.

Want to find out more about how the American Civil War ended? Click here for more information, or here for more about the after effects.

This Week in Space Exploration - Mariner 9

 

This Week's Historical Theme: Space Exploration

30 May 1971

A significant event throughout the history of space exploration is the Mariner 9 departing for Mars. The U.S. unmanned space probe was launched to gather scientific information on Mars, the fourth planet from the sun. It is one of the greatest technological achievements in human history. The space craft was launched on 30 May 1971 and entered the planets obit on 13 November the same year. As the first spacecraft to orbit a planet other than Earth, Mariner 9 sent back more than 7,000 pictures of the "Red Planet" and succeeded in photographing Mars in its entirety.

It circled Mars twice each day for almost a year gathering data on the atmospheric and surface composition, density, pressure, and temperature. When Mariner 9 first arrived, Mars was completely obscured by dust storms which persisted for a month. Once these cleared, the space probe revealed the enormous volcanos and a gigantic canyon stretching 3,000 miles across the planet's surface. The probe also recorded what appeared to be dried riverbeds, suggesting the ancient presence of water and perhaps life on the planet. It also sent back the first close-up images of the Martian Moon. Its transmission ended on 27 October 1972.

Want to find out more about Mariner 9? Click here for more information, or here to find out more about the history of space exploration.

This Week in Women's Rights - 'A Bunny's Tale'

This Week's Historical Theme: Women's Rights

 

1 May 1963

A significant event throughout the history of women's rights that occurred in May was Gloria Steinem's publication of "A Bunny's Tale". After her brief but shocking time undercover as a Bunny in Manhattan's Playboy Club, feminist writer, Gloria Steinem published the first half of her landmark account, "A Bunny's Tale", in SHOW magazine on 1 May 1963. Steinem was commissioned by SHOW to apply for a job at the Playboy Club under a fake name and document her experience. The servers at the clubs were known as "Bunnies" and were made to wear a highly sexualised bunny uniform trademark of the Playboy brand. Her brilliant exposé stripped back the glamorous facade of Hugh Hefner's Playboy empire at the height of its influence, revealing the strife misogyny and exploitation of young women.

Steinem quickly learned the truth was far removed from the glamorous way in which it was depicted. Bunnies were paid far less than the advertised $200-$300 per week, the club took 50% of the first $30 they made in tips, and they had to comply to a harsh system of demerits which amounted to salary reduction. These demerits could be given for offenses such as refusing to go out with a customer in a rude way, or allowing the cotton tail on the back of their uniforms to get dirty. The Bunnies were also subject to constant harassment by the clientele and in some accounts, were pressured into going out with "Number One keyholders" who were exclusive members of the club. Though Hefner tried to take the exposé in his stride, claiming applications to work the Playboy Club had increased after its publication, it was merely the first of many feminist attacks on the male-centric Playboy lifestyle that exploited and objectified women.

Want to find out more about Gloria Steinem's exposé? Click here for more information, or here for more about feminism in the 60s and 70s.

This Week in the Cold War - The Rosenbergs

This Week's Historical Theme: The Cold War

April 5 1951

A significant event throughout the history of the Cold War that occurred in April is the sentencing of the Rosenbergs. In the most sensational spy trial in American history, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were sentenced to death, convicted of playing a central role in a spy ring that passed secret data concerning the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. Their role in espionage came to light in a chain of arrests that started with British physicist Klaus Fuchs who was arrested in 1950. He was questioned and his implications eventually led to David Greenglass who pointed the finger at his sister and brother-in-law, Ethel and Julius Rosenberg. Greenglass later told New York Times journalist Sam Roberts, that he had entered into a deal with the US government, implicating his sister, Ethel, in exchange for his wife's immunity.

After a brief trial in March 1951, they were found guilty of conspiracy to commit espionage, although the couple proclaimed their innocence. The Rosenbergs and their attorneys continued to argue that they were "victims of political hysteria". Humanitarian organisations in the United States and around the world pleaded for leniency, particularly since they were the parents of two young children. The pleas for special consideration were ignored. At their sentencing hearing on April 5 1951, Federal judge Irving R. Kaufman described their crime as "worse than murder" and stated "By your betrayal you undoubtedly have altered the course of history to the disadvantage of our country." He then sentenced them to death and they were executed on June 19 1953 making them the only spies executed during the Cold War. Whether they were guilty or not has been in dispute for more than half a century.

Want to find out more about why the Rosenbergs were executed? Click here for more information, or here for more about espionage in the Cold War.

This Week in the United States - The 15th Amendment

This Week's Historical Theme: The United States

30 March 1870

A significant event throughout the history of the United States that occurred in March was the adoption of the 15th Amendment into the U.S Constitution. On 30 March 1870 the 15th Amendment (the last of the 3 Reconstruction Amendments) was passed by Congress and ratified, granting African American men the right to vote. The amendment followed the 13th Amendment (1865) which abolished slavery, and the 14th Amendment (1868) which granted African Americans full rights to citizenship. In the same year, Hiram Rhodes Revels, a Republican from Natchez Mississippi, became the first African American ever to sit in Congress.

Despite this, by the late 1970s support for Reconstruction was dwindling and the election of Rutherford B. Hayes in 1876 marked the end of the Reconstruction Era. The individual state authority over their laws left the door open for southern state legislature to determine specific qualifications for suffrage. Such tactics used were literacy tests and poll taxes – as well as Jim Crow Laws and intimidation by white supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan - which  disenfranchised a majority of Black votes in the decades following Reconstruction. It wasn't until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s that triggered the end of discriminatory voting practices with President Johnson signing the Voting Rights Act into law in 1965.

Want to find out more about the Reconstruction Amendments? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

This Week in Women's Rights - The Equal Rights Amendment

This Week's Historical Theme: Women's Rights

22 March 1972

A significant event throughout the history of women's rights that occurred in March was the passing of the Equality Rights Amendment by the U.S Senate. First proposed by the National Women's political party, it was introduced to Congress in 1923 shortly after women in the United States were granted the right to vote. The ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) was to provide for the legal equality of the sexes and prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex. The revival of feminism in the 1960s led to its approval by the U.S Senate on 22 March 1972 and it was then sent to the states for ratification.

Hawaii was the first state to ratify the ERA followed by 30 other states within a year. However, during the mid 1970s there was a conservative backlash against feminism and thus growing opposition to the ERA led by Phyllis Schlafly. Despite a deadline extension to June 1982, it was not ratified by the requisite majority of 38 states. What would have been the 27th Amendment to the Constitution was therefore rejected. Regardless of the considerable legislation since passed to protect the legal rights of women, due to the rejection of the ERA women still do not legally have equal rights under the U.S Constitution.

Want to find out more about why the Equal Rights Amendment is still yet to be ratified? Click here for more information, or here for more about Phyllis Schlafly's campaign against it.

This Week in the Great Depression - Gambling is Legalised in Nevada

This Week's Historical Theme: The Great Depression

 

19 March 1931

 

A significant event throughout the history of the Great Depression that occurred in March was the legalisation of gambling in Nevada. This was done in an attempt to lift the state out of its hard times. At the beginning of the Depression, Nevada's mines were in decline and its economy was in shambles. These mining opportunities had been revealed by settlers in 1859, with discovery of the 'Comstock Lode' of gold and silver, before Nevada had been made the 36^th state of the Union during the Civil War five years later. Divorce was also legalised in the same year as gambling, in response to population flight.

 

Established in 1905, Las Vegas has since become the gambling and entertainment capital of the world. It is especially famous for its casinos, nightclubs and sporting events. In the first few decades after the legalisation of gambling, organised crime flourished in the city. It's tolerance for many forms of adult entertainment has also earned it the title of 'Sin City', making it a popular setting in literature, films, television and music videos. Today, state gambling taxes account for the lion's share of Nevada's overall tax revenues.

 

Want to find out more about the history of gambling in Nevada? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Great Depression.

This Week in the United States - President Johnson's Impeachment

This Week's Historical Theme: The United States

 

24 February 1868

 

A significant event throughout the history of the United States that occurred in February was the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson. This came after the US House of Representatives voted 11 articles of impeachment against him, making Johnson the first president to be impeached in US history. His impeachment trial began in the Senate, on March 13, under the direction of US Supreme Court Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase. The trial ended on May 26 with Johnson's opponents narrowly falling short by one vote to achieve the two-thirds majority necessary to convict him.

 

The primary charge against Johnson was that he had violated the Tenure of Office Act, that had been passed by Congress in March 1867 over Johnson's veto. More specifically, he had removed Edwin Stanton from office, the secretary of war, whom the act was largely designed to protect. Stanton did not have a good relationship with Johnson, and often sided with the Radical Republican faction that passed the act. The impeachment and trial had important political implications, as it maintained the principle that Congress should not remove the president from office simply because its members disagreed with him.

 

Want to find out more about President Johnson's impeachment? Click here for more information, or here for more about other presidents who have faced impeachment.

This Week in Groundhog Day - The First Groundhog Day

This Week's Historical Theme: Groundhog Day

 

2 February 1887

 

A significant event throughout the history of Groundhog Day that occurred in February was the first ever celebrated Groundhog Day. It featured a rodent meteorologist and took place at Gobbler's Knob in Pennsylvania. Tradition stated that if a groundhog came out of its hole on this day and sees its shadow, it gets scared and runs back into its burrow, predicting six more weeks of winter weather. If there was no shadow, it means an early spring. The day also has its roots in the ancient Christian tradition of Candlemas, when clergy would bless and distribute candles needed for the winter. The candles represented how long and cold the winter would be.

 

In 1887, a newspaper editor belonging to a group of groundhog hunters from Pennsylvania declared that Phil, the local groundhog, was America's only true weather-forecasting groundhog. The line of groundhogs that have since been known as Phil are America's most famous groundhogs, but other towns across North America have other weather-predicting rodents, like Staten Island Chuck and Birmingham Bill. In 1993, the film 'Groundhog Day' popularised the usage of 'groundhog day' to mean something that is repeated over and over. Today, tens of thousands of people visit Gobbler's Knob to witness Phil's prediction.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the Groundhog Day? Click here for more information, or here for more information about Groundhog Day 2021.

This Week in Climate Change - The Clean Air Act

This Week's Historical Theme: Climate Change

 

17 December 1963

 

A significant event throughout the history of climate change that occurred in December was the Clean Air Act, passed by President Lyndon B. Johnson. This was one of the first major pieces of environmental legislation in the United States, which empowered federal and state agencies to research and regulate air pollution. This marked a major expansion of government efforts to fight back against the damage being done to the climate. Before this, in 1955, the Air Pollution Control Act had allocated $15 million to the study of air pollution across the country. The research conducted revealed that further legislation would be needed.

 

The landmark act, as well as its subsequent amendments, comprised of some of the most comprehensive air-quality legislation in the world. Shortly after its creation in 1970, the Environmental Protection Agency began using its powers under the Clean Air Act to set quality standards for areas that had been affected by air pollution. It has subsequently been invoked to ban specific harmful chemicals and tackle specific environmental issues, like acid rain. Even though there is a long way to go, national emissions after the act dropped 63%, despite overall economic growth and an increase in the number of miles driven.

 

Want to find out more about the Clean Air Acts? Click here for more information, or here for more about the history of climate change.

November 26 - Thanksgiving Day is Officially Established by FDR

This Day in History: 26 November 2020

 

26 November 1941

 

79 years ago, today, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a bill that officially declared the fourth Thursday in November to be Thanksgiving Day. The tradition of celebrating the holiday on Thursday dates back to the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay, when a famous Thanksgiving observance occurred in 1621. Plymouth governor William Bradford had invited local members of the Wampanoag tribe to join the Pilgrims in a festival held in gratitude for the bounty of the season. Throughout the 17^th century, this became an annual custom in New England. However, it was not until 1863, when President Abraham Lincoln declared Thanksgiving to officially fall on the last Thursday of November, that the modern holiday was celebrated nationally.

 

With a few exceptions, Lincoln's action was followed annually by every subsequent president, until 1939. In this year, Franklin D. Roosevelt departed from tradition by declaring November 23 as Thanksgiving Day, the next to last Thursday. Controversy surrounded this deviation, and some Americans even refused to honour this declaration. Over the next two years, Roosevelt repeated the unpopular proclamation. However, on this day, he admitted his mistake and signed a bill into law that officially cemented the fourth Thursday of November as the national holiday of Thanksgiving.

 

Want to find out more about the history of Thanksgiving Day? Click here for more information, or here for more about Roosevelt's declaration. 

November 15 - The Shah of Iran Visits President Carter

This Day in History: 15 November 2020

 

15 November 1977

 

43 years ago, today, President Carter hosted the shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and his wife, Shahbanou Farrah, to Washington. Over the next two days, Carter and Pahlavi discussed improving relations between the two countries. The official discussions centred on peace prospects for the Middle East as well as ways to combat the energy crisis that had hit the West in the early 1970s. At the time, Carter hoped to enlist Iran's help in reconvening peace talks between Israel and Egypt. He also wanted Iran's help in supporting nuclear non-proliferation talks with the Soviet Union.

 

The visit ended on a positive note, and the next month, Carter and his wife travelled to Tehran. Two years later, the two leaders' political fates would be further entwined when Islamic fundamentalists overthrew the shah and took Americans hostage in Tehran. In October 1979, the exiled shah came to the United States for cancer treatment. Carter's hospitality toward the shah enraged a group of radical Iranian students, who stormed the US embassy in Tehran in November, taking 66 Americans hostage. This crisis lasted 444 days and Carter's inability to secure their release led to his replacement by Ronald Reagan in 1980.

 

Want to find out more about the shah's disposition? Click here for more information, or here for more about the hostage crisis.

November 14 - The United States Announces Support for Yugoslavia

This Day in History: 14 November 2020

 

14 November 1951

 

69 years ago, today, the United States announced its plan to give military and economic aid to communist Yugoslavia. The action was part of the US policy to drive a further wedge between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. Even though the United States had supported Josip Broz Tito during World War II, as Cold War hostilities set in, US policy toward Yugoslavia hardened. Tito was viewed simply as another tool of Soviet expansion into eastern and southern Europe. However, in 1948, Tito broke with Stalin, but still continued to proclaim his allegiance to communist ideology.

 

In order to win Tito's favour, the United States supported Yugoslavia's efforts in 1949 to gain a seat at the United Nations. In 1951, President Truman asked Congress to provide economic and military assistance to Yugoslavia, which was granted. Nevertheless, Tito continued to support the Soviet Union, as in 1956, he supported the Soviet invasion of Hungary. Even though the United States admired Tito's independence, sometimes he could be too independent. The American officials were concerned in the 1950s and 1960s when Tito encouraged and supported the nonalignment movement among Third World nations, as the Americans were intent on forcing those nations to choose sides in the Cold War.

 

Want to find out more about Yugoslavia in the Cold War? Click here for more information, or here for more about Tito.

November 13 - The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is Dedicated

This Day in History: 13 November 2020

 

13 November 1982

 

38 years ago, today, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C., after a march to its site by thousands of veterans who served in the conflict. The long-awaited memorial was a simple V-shaped black granite wall, that was inscribed with the names of the 57,939 Americans who died in the conflict. Their names were arranged in order of death, not their rank, which was common in other memorials. It soon became one of the most visited memorials in the nation's capital. It drew together both those who fought and those who marched against the war, serving to promote national healing a decade after the conflict ended.

 

The designer of the memorial was Maya Lin, a Yale University architecture student who entered a nationwide competition to create a design for the monument. Lin was born in Ohio in 1959 and was the daughter to Chinese immigrants. Many veterans' groups were opposed to the winning design, as it lacked a standard memorial's heroic statutes and stirring words. However, a shift in public opinion occurred in the months after the memorial's dedication. Families of the dead and veterans visited the wall, seeking the names of their loved ones. Once the name was found, a private offering was usually left, from notes and flowers to dog tags and cans of beer.

 

Want to find out more about the Vietnam Veterans Memorial? Click here for more information, or here for more about Maya Lin.

November 7 - FDR is Elected to Serve His Fourth Term in Office

This Day in History: 7 November 2020

 

7 November 1944

 

76 years ago, today, President Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected to an unprecedented fourth term in office and remains the only president to have served more than two terms. He had rose above personal and political challenges to ultimately emerge as one of the most influential presidents, presiding over two of the biggest crises in US history after contracting polio in 1921: the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II. As president, he implemented the legislation necessary to help boost America out of the Great Depression. Although he initially delayed US involvement in the war, the bombing of Pearl Harbour in 1941 thrust America into the conflict.

 

When Roosevelt was elected to his fourth term, the war was looking to be in favour of the Allied victory, but the president's health was in serious decline. His arteriosclerosis had been worsened by the stress of managing the war, and in April 1945, seven months before the war's end, Roosevelt died of a stroke. Harry Truman, Roosevelt's vice president, came into office, while Congress proposed the 22^nd Amendment. This would mean that presidents would be limited to two consecutive terms. Prior to this, they had either followed George Washington's example in serving a maximum of two years or were unsuccessful in winning a third. The Amendment was passed in 1951.

 

Want to find out more about the life of Franklin Roosevelt? Click here for more information, or here for more firsts in US presidential history.

October 27 - The New York Subway Opens

This Day in History: 27 October 2020

 

27 October 1904

 

116 years ago, today, the New York City subway opened. The first line, operated by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, travelled 9.1 miles through 28 stations. It ran from City Hall in lower Manhattan to Grand Central Terminal, before heading west to Times Square. The line finished by travelling north to Harlem. New York City's Mayor George McClellan took the controls on the subway and stayed at them all the way through City Hall to 103^rd Street. More than 100,000 people paid a nickel to take their first ride under Manhattan when the subway opened to the general public at 7pm that evening.

 

While London's underground train network is the oldest, opening in 1863, and America's first subway opened in Boston in 1897, the New York subway soon became the largest American system. In 1905, the service expanded to the Bronx, to Brooklyn in 1908, and to Queens in 1915. The subway now has 26 lines and 472 stations. Every day, around 4.5 million passengers take the subway, and is one of the only rapid transit systems that runs 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, with the New Jersey PATH train being the other.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the New York subway? Click here for more information.

Black History Month - Don Barden

Black History Month: 25 October 2020

 

Don Barden was born December 20, 1943, in Detroit, Michigan. Instead of continuing with university, he decided to start a business and with just $500 started a record store which did well enough that he put on concerts and founded his own public relations business. A lucrative army contract and subsequent property sale made him rich, which led to him cofounding the Lorain County Times newspaper. In 1993, when Indiana legalised riverboat casinos, he teamed up with President Riverboat Casinos and sold his share of Barden Cablevision to raise $300 million; he used this to open the Majestic Star in 1996. In 2002, after Fitzgerald's casinos filed for bankruptcy, Barden took ownership of them, securing $135 million to his stake. Crucially, one of those was in Las Vegas, making Barden the first black casino owner in Las Vegas. Beyond the worlds of gambling and television Barden was also involved in the development of new technologies, including digital voting machines and video jukeboxes that played music videos. He died on May 19, 2001 of lung cancer.

 

Want to find out more about Don Barden? Click here for more information.

October 20 - The Red Scare Begins in Hollywood

This Day in History: 20 October 2020

 

20 October 1947

 

73 years ago, today, Congress began to investigate communists in Hollywood, initiating the Red Scare. After World War II ended, the Cold War intensified matters between the world's two superpowers, the capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union. In Washington, conservatives worked to expose communists in the government before focusing on alleged 'reds' in the liberal film industry. The House Un-American Activities Committee was tasked to lead the investigation. They grilled many prominent witnesses, asking bluntly if they had ever been a member of the Communist Party. Some witnesses, including director Elia Kazan and studio managers like Walt Disney and Jack Warner, gave the committee names of colleagues they suspected of being communists. Whether this was out of patriotism or fear is unknown.

 

When interrogated, a small group known as the 'Hollywood Ten' resisted, complaining the hearings were illegal and violated their First Amendment rights. They were all convicted of obstructing the investigation and were given jail terms. Due to Congress' pressure, Hollywood began a blacklist policy, banning works by people who had not been cleared by the committee. This list included playwright Arthur Miller and actor Orson Welles. Some of these blacklisted writers used pseudonyms to stay writing, while others wrote scripts that were credited to other writers. In 1997, the Writers' Guild of America changed the writing credits of 23 films made during this period, reversing some of the Red Scare's damage.

 

Want to find out more about the Red Scare? Click here for more information, or here for more about the House Un-American Activities Committee.

Black History Month - Phillis Wheatley

Black History Month: 11 October 2020

 

Phillis Wheatley was the first African American and the second woman to ever publish a book of poems. She first began to write poetry when she was fourteen and published her first poem in 1767. However, it was with her publication of 'An Elegiac Poem, on the Death of the Celebrated Divine George Whitefield' in 1770 that brought her great fame. Wheatley travelled to London in 1773 to publish her first collection of poems, 'Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral' which became the first book written by a black woman in America. Shortly afterwards, she was emancipated from her role as a slave for the Wheatley family.

 

Her many poems reflected several influences in her life, including well-known poets that she studied, pride in her African heritage, and religion, leading Protestants in both America and England to enjoy her work. Wheatley's opposition to slavery was evident in her several letters to ministers and others about liberty and freedom. Although she praised George Washington in a well-received poem, she believed that slavery was the issue that prevented colonists from achieving true heroism. In December 1784, Wheatley died, due to complications from childbirth. Her literary and artistic talents helped to show that African Americans were equally capable, creative and intelligent and benefited from education, aiding the abolition movement.

 

Want to find out more about Phillis Wheatley? Click here for more information, or here to read her poem 'On Being Brought from Africa to America'.

October 10 - President Eisenhower Apologises to Ghanaian Finance Minister

This Day in History: 10 October 2020

 

10 October 1957

 

63 years ago, today, President Dwight D. Eisenhower apologised to the Ghanaian Finance Minister, Komla Agbeli Gbedemah, inviting him to breakfast at the White House. He had been refused service at a restaurant in Dover, Delaware. It was one of the first of many such incidents where African diplomats were confronted with racial segregation in the United States. Even though the matter may appear rather small compared to other events during the Cold War, the racial slights to African and Asian diplomats during the 1950s and 60s were of high concern to US officials. During those decades, the Soviet Union and the United States were competing for the hearts and favour of millions of people in Asia and Africa.

 

Racial discrimination in America, especially when it was directed at representatives from those continents, was coined as the nation's 'Achilles' heel'. During the early 1960s, matters continued to deteriorate as many diplomats from new nations in Africa and Asia faced housing discrimination in Washington, DC. A series of confrontations in restaurants, barbershops and other businesses in and around the area made it clear that American civil rights had become an international issue.

 

Want to find out more about President Eisenhower's apology to Gbedemah? Click here for more information, or here for a video of more about the apology.