November 1 - The European Union is Established

This Day in History: 1 November 2020

 

1 November 1993

 

27 years ago, today, the European Union was established, when the Maastricht Treaty came into effect. This was drafted in 1991 by delegates from the European Community meeting at Maastricht in the Netherlands, whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand, and was officially signed in 1992. The agreement called for a strengthened European parliament, the creation of a central European bank and common foreign and security policies. As well as this, it laid the groundwork for the establishment of a single European currency, known as the 'euro', and established European citizenship.

 

By 1993, 12 nations had ratified the Maastricht Treaty and joined the European Union: Great Britain, France, Germany, the Irish Republic, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Denmark, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. Two years later, in 1995, Austria, Finland and Sweden became members of the EU. After suffering through centuries of bloody and destructive conflict, the nations of Western Europe were finally united in the spirit of economic cooperation. However, in 2016, in what became popularly known as 'Brexit', the United Kingdom voted to leave the EU. They officially left in January 2020, and currently, the nation is in a transitional phase until December 2020.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the EU? Click here for more information, or here for more about the history of Brexit.

Black History Month - Paul Yaw Boateng

Black History Month: 30 October 2020

 

Paul Yaw Boateng is a Labour Party politician, who was the MP for Brent South from 1987 to 2005, becoming the UK's first black Cabinet Minister in May 2002, when he was appointed as Chief Secretary to the Treasury. Boateng was elected to the Greater London Council for Walthamstow in 1981, which was then under the leadership of Ken Livingstone. Boateng was only the second person of Afro-Caribbean descent to be elected to the GLC. As chair of the GLC's police committee and vice-chair of its ethnic minorities committee, he advocated greater accountability in the Metropolitan Police and spoke out against racism in relation to their dealings with the black and Asian communities. In 1992, he became shadow minister for the Lord Chancellor's Department, a post he held until the 1997 general election, where he was a strong advocate for increasing pro bono legal services among UK law firms.

 

Boateng became the UK's first black government minister as Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department of Health, where he was responsible for social services and mental health. In that position, he published guidelines to end the denial of adoptions purely on the basis of race. Boateng is credited with building a close relationship to South Africa's ANC government, and it was reported that he privately worked to bring together bitter rivals in the crisis in Zimbabwe, although he publicly condemned the Zimbabwean government's illegal occupation of land from white farmers and the resulting turmoil, which Boateng labelled a "human rights crisis." On 28 May 2010, it was announced in the 2010 Dissolution Honours that Boateng would become a member of the House of Lords.

 

Want to find out more about Paul Boateng? Click here for more information.

Black History Month - Joe Clough

Black History Month: 29 October 2020

 

Born in 1887, Joe Clough became the first Black London bus driver in history. He was born in Kingston, Jamaica, and having been orphaned at an early age, became employed by a Scottish doctor to look after his ponies. When he was just 18, in 1905, this doctor offered to take him to England, an opportunity Joe quickly accepted. They arrived in 1906. As the doctor's servant, Joe learnt not only how to drive the horse drawn coach, but also the motor car, which was a very recent invention.

 

It was not until 1910 that he applied to work at the London General Omnibus Company. Initially employed for a while as a spare driver, once he had passed his test, he began driving number 11 B-type buses around London. He made huge contributions during World War One, as he drove a field ambulance for four years on the Western Front at Ypres. Once the war was over, he lived in Bedford with his wife and two daughters and was able to buy his own taxi in 1949. Sadly, he died in 1976 at the age of 91.

 

Want to find out more about Joe Clough? Click here for more information.

Black History Month - Sara Forbes Bonetta

Black History Month: 31 October 2020

 

Sara Forbes Bonetta was the goddaughter to Queen Victoria and was an Egbado princess of the Yoruba people in West Africa. During a war with the nearby Kingdom of Dahomey, she was orphaned, and became the slave of King Ghezo of Dahomey. In a turn of events, two years later, she was liberated by Captain Frederick E. Forbes of the British Royal Navy on a diplomatic mission. From her birth name of Omoba Aina, she was renamed after Forbes and his ship HMS Bonetta. In 1850, she met Queen Victoria, who was impressed with the princess' intelligence. She had Sara, whom she called Sally, raised as her goddaughter in the British middle class.

 

In 1862, she was given permission by the Queen to marry Captain James Pinson Labulo Davies. He was a Yoruba businessman of considerable wealth, and after their wedding, the two moved back to Africa, where they had three children: Victoria, Arthur, and Stella. Sara kept such a close relationship with Queen Victoria that she and Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther were the only Lagos residents the Royal Navy had orders to evacuate in the event of an uprising. Many of Sara's descendants now live in either England or Sierra Leone, where she was educated. She died of tuberculosis in 1880. An obelisk-shaped monument was raised by her husband in her memory in Western Lagos.

 

Want to find out more about Sara Forbes Bonetta? Click here for more information, or watch the 2017 ITV series 'Victoria', where Sara is portrayed by Zaris-Angel Hator.

October 31 - Halloween

This Day in History: 31 October 2020

 

31 October 1745

 

275 years ago, today, the term 'Halloween' was first used. However, the celebration dates much further back, originating with the ancient Celtic festival of Samhain. During this, people would light bonfires and wear costumes in order to ward of ghosts. The day also marked the end of summer and the beginning of the dark, cold winter, a time associated with human death. The Celts believed that on this night, the boundary between the worlds of the living and the dead became blurred. When the celebration was over, their hearth fires were re-lit to help protect them during the winter.

 

After the Roman Empire had conquered the Celts, Halloween traditions changed. In 1000 A.D., the church made November 2 All Souls' Day, also known as All-hallows, a day to honour the dead, most likely to replace the Celtic festival with a related, church-sanctioned holiday. It was still similar to Samhain, however. The day was eventually moved to November 1 sometime in the 8^th century. The night before it began to be called All-Hallows Eve, and eventually transformed into Halloween. Although British Halloween traditions include games such as bobbing for apples and telling ghost stories, it was from the United States that modern innovations like the use of pumpkins and 'treat-or-treating' originated.

 

Want to find out more about the history of Halloween? Click here for more information, or here for Halloween costumes inspired by history.

October 30 - The Armistice of Mudros

This Day in History: 30 October 2020

 

30 October 1918

 

102 years ago, today, the Armistice of Mudros concluded, ending hostilities in the Middle East between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War One the following day. The treaty also effectively marked the dissolution of a once mighty empire. It was signed between the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs, Rauf Bey, and the British Admiral Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe. By its terms, Turkey had to open the Dardanelle and Bosporus straits to Allied warships and its forts to military occupation. They were also forced to demobilise their army, release all prisoners of war and evacuate its Arab provinces.

 

During World War One, the Ottoman Empire initially stayed neutral, but soon formed an alliance with Germany and entered the war on the side of the Central Powers. The Turks subsequently fought successfully to defend the Gallipoli Peninsula against a massive Allied invasion in 1915-1916. However, by 1918, defeat by invading British and Russian forces and an Arab revolt had combined to destroy the Ottoman economy and devastate its land, leaving millions dead and millions more starving. The Ottoman government and several Turkish leaders felt the need to contact the Allies to search for peace.

 

Want to find out more about the Armistice of Mudros? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about the Ottoman Empire during World War One.

Black History Month - Ottobah Cugoano

Black History Month: 28 October 2020

 

Ottobah Cugoano was an African abolitionist who was active in England in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Captured and sold into slavery at the age of 13 in present-day Ghana, he was shipped to Grenada. In 1772 he was purchased by an English merchant who took him to England, where he was freed. Later working for the Cosways, he became acquainted with British political and cultural figures, and joined the Sons of Africa, abolitionists who were Africans.

 

In England, Cugoano became very prominent in the abolitionist movement. In 1786, he joined the African-British William Green in successfully appealing to Granville Sharp to save Harry Demane from being forced into slavery. With Olaudah Equiano and other "Sons of Africa" he continued to write against slavery, contributing public letters to London newspapers. His most important published text was "Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species" (1787), later published in a shorter version, "Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery" (1791). The book excoriated slavery, calling for immediate abolition of the trade and emancipation of the enslaved. It was the most radical abolitionist text of its time.

 

Want to learn more about Cugoano's story? Click here for more information.

October 29 - The Suez Crisis Begins

This Day in History: 29 October 2020

 

29 October 1956

 

64 years ago, today, the Suez Crisis began when Israel invaded Egypt. They would soon be joined by French and British forces, initiating a serious event during the Cold War in the Middle East. The joint attack had been motivated by Egypt's nationalisation of the Suez Canal in July. Prior to this, also, the Egyptian military had been pressuring the British to end their military presence in the canal zone. The Egyptian leader, General Nasser, had also been engaged in sporadic battles with Israeli soldiers along both nations' border. Nasser did nothing to hide his hostility towards the Zionist nation.

 

After the Israelis attacked, they were shocked to find that British and French forces did not immediately follow behind them. Instead of a lightning strike by overwhelming force, the attack simmered down, and the United Nations quickly passed a resolution calling for a cease-fire. The Soviet Union began to issue ominous threats about coming to Egypt's aid, and a dangerous situation developed. The United States sternly warned the Soviet Union to stay out of the situation, but also pressured the British, French and Israeli governments to withdraw. In late 1956 and early 1957, they did so, ending the Suez Crisis.

 

Want to find out more about the Suez Crisis? Click here for more information, or here for more about General Nasser and Israel.

Black History Month - Sislin Fay Allen

Black History Month: 27 October 2020

 

Sislin Fay Allen, known as Fay Allen, was the black woman police constable in the United Kingdom, serving in the Metropolitan Police in London from 1968 to 1972. Allen was born in Jamaica before moving to the UK. Here she went on to work as a nurse at Croydon's Queens Hospital before deciding to switch careers after seeing a recruitment advert for male and female police officers. After training at Peel House, she was posted to Fell Road police station in Croydon. After a year in Croydon, she was posted to the Missing Persons Bureau at Scotland Yard for a while before being transferred back to the beat at Norbury police station.

 

In 1972, she resigned from the Metropolitan Police to return to Jamaica with her family. In Jamaica, she continued her policing career and joined the Jamaica Constabulary. She later returned to the UK with her family and moved to South London. Sislin has since returned to Jamaica again where she now lives.

 

Want to find out more about Sislin Fay Allen? Click here for more information.

October 28 - The Cuban Missile Crisis Ends

This Day in History: 28 October 2020

 

28 October 1962

 

58 years ago, today, the Cuban Missile Crisis came to an end when Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove Russian missiles from Cuba, in exchange for an American promise to respect Cuba's territorial sovereignty. This agreement ended nearly two weeks of tension between the United States and the Soviet Union that was close to provoking a nuclear conflict. The crisis was initiated in response to the failed Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961, and the discovery of American missiles in Italy and Turkey, when Khrushchev placed nuclear missiles in Cuba to prevent a future invasion. A naval blockade was ordered by President Kennedy to prevent further missiles from entering Cuba in retaliation.

 

The consequences of the crisis varied. Relations between the communist nations of Cuba and the Soviet Union were insecure for some time after Khrushchev removed the missiles, as Fidel Castro, the Cuban leader, accused him of deserting the Cuban revolution. European allies of the United States were also angered, but not due to the American stance, but because Kennedy's administration kept them virtually in the dark about ongoing negotiations that may have led to a devastating nuclear war. Inside the Soviet Union, hard-liners were disgusted by Khrushchev's withdrawal of weapons. He was removed from power two years later.

 

Want to find out more about the Cuban Missile Crisis? Click here for more information, or here for an animated video about the crisis.

October 27 - The New York Subway Opens

This Day in History: 27 October 2020

 

27 October 1904

 

116 years ago, today, the New York City subway opened. The first line, operated by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, travelled 9.1 miles through 28 stations. It ran from City Hall in lower Manhattan to Grand Central Terminal, before heading west to Times Square. The line finished by travelling north to Harlem. New York City's Mayor George McClellan took the controls on the subway and stayed at them all the way through City Hall to 103^rd Street. More than 100,000 people paid a nickel to take their first ride under Manhattan when the subway opened to the general public at 7pm that evening.

 

While London's underground train network is the oldest, opening in 1863, and America's first subway opened in Boston in 1897, the New York subway soon became the largest American system. In 1905, the service expanded to the Bronx, to Brooklyn in 1908, and to Queens in 1915. The subway now has 26 lines and 472 stations. Every day, around 4.5 million passengers take the subway, and is one of the only rapid transit systems that runs 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, with the New Jersey PATH train being the other.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the New York subway? Click here for more information.

Black History Month - Don Barden

Black History Month: 25 October 2020

 

Don Barden was born December 20, 1943, in Detroit, Michigan. Instead of continuing with university, he decided to start a business and with just $500 started a record store which did well enough that he put on concerts and founded his own public relations business. A lucrative army contract and subsequent property sale made him rich, which led to him cofounding the Lorain County Times newspaper. In 1993, when Indiana legalised riverboat casinos, he teamed up with President Riverboat Casinos and sold his share of Barden Cablevision to raise $300 million; he used this to open the Majestic Star in 1996. In 2002, after Fitzgerald's casinos filed for bankruptcy, Barden took ownership of them, securing $135 million to his stake. Crucially, one of those was in Las Vegas, making Barden the first black casino owner in Las Vegas. Beyond the worlds of gambling and television Barden was also involved in the development of new technologies, including digital voting machines and video jukeboxes that played music videos. He died on May 19, 2001 of lung cancer.

 

Want to find out more about Don Barden? Click here for more information.

Black History Month - Ira Aldridge

Black History Month: 26 October 2020

 

Ira Aldridge was the first black Shakespearean actor, who made his career on the London stage. His father had initially intended him for the church, and sent him to New York's African Free School, where many future leaders of the American abolition movement were educated. However, Ira was attracted to the theatre, at a time when British actors were playing in New York, and the city's free black community had launched its own African Theatre. He made his debut as Rolla in 'Pizarro', but the only way for Ira to succeed was to emigrate. Therefore, when he was around 17, he worked his passage to Liverpool as a ship's steward.

 

His first known British performance in 1825 had a mixed reception. The Times commented on his apparent difficulty to pronounce English due to the shape of his lips, but The Globe found his enunciation interesting and distinct. Due to Ira's race, he received a hostile response, preventing him from establishing himself in London. Outside of London, he won respect, and was able to perform as Othello. His contemporaries praised his work, but was boycotted by the West End stage, and so sailed for Europe. While on a lengthy tour, visiting many places no foreign actor had been to, he died aged 59. The whole town of Lodz turned out to mourn his passing.

 

Want to find out more about Ira Aldridge? Click here for more information.

October 26 - Brazil Enters World War I

This Day in History: 26 October 2020

 

26 October 1917

 

103 years ago, today, Brazil declared war on Germany, and thus entered the First World War on the side of the Allies. The nation had been increasingly threatened by Germany's policy of unrestricted submarine warfare over the course of the first two years of World War One. Brazil's government subsequently sought to amend its constitution to allow it to declare war. The Brazilian foreign minister, Dr. Nilo Pecanha, justified his country's decision to enter the struggle by noting Germany's attacks on international trade. He also spoke about the higher purpose of creating a more peaceful and democratic post-war world.

 

Although Brazil's actual contribution to the Allied war effort was limited to one medical unit and some airmen, its participation was rewarded with a presence at the post-war negotiations. However, Brazil's three official delegates at the Paris Peace Conference angered Portugal, who had sent 60,000 soldiers into war but only had one delegate. Since Britain supported Portugal in the disagreement and the US backed Brazil, no change was made. In June 1919, Brazil was one of the 27 nations to sign the Versailles Treaty, along with many other Allied Latin America nations, including Cuba, Haiti, Peru and Uruguay.

 

Want to find out more about Brazil's role in World War One? Click here for more information, or here for a video instead.

October 25 - The Charge of the Light Brigade

This Day in History: 25 October 2020

 

25 October 1854

 

166 years ago, today, the Charge of the Light Brigade occurred. This was a failed military mission involving the British light cavalry, led by Lord Cardigan, against Russian forces during the Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War. A miscommunication in the chain of command caused the Light Brigade to instead be sent on a frontal assault instead of their original task of removing captured guns from overrun Turkish positions. They reached a different artillery battery under withering direct fire and were forced to retreat immediately. The assault ended with very high British casualties and hardly any decisive gains. Nevertheless, Lord Cardigan was hailed as a national hero in Britain.

 

The events of the incident were the subject of Alfred Lord Tennyson's narrative poem 'The Charge of the Light Brigade', that was published only six weeks afterwards. The verses of the poem emphasise the honour and valour of the cavalry when they bravely carried out their orders, despite the nearly inevitable outcome. Tennyson also wrote this while he was acting as Poet Laureate for Great Britain. This was not Tennyson's only patriotic poem, however, as he wrote several under various pseudonyms, such as 'Riflemen Form!'.

 

Want to find out more about the Charge of the Light Brigade? Click here for more information, or here to read Tennyson's poem.

Black History Month - Frank Bailey

Black History Month: 24 October 2020

 

Frank Bailey is remembered as the first Black firefighter in Britain, described by the London Fire Commissioner as a "pioneer". Born in Guyana, Bailey came to England in 1953. He was a political activist, and upon hearing allegations of racism against the Britain fire department, and that black people were not being hired, decided to apply for a job there in 1955 to see if this was true. He was accepted, however, and joined the West Ham fire brigade in East London. In a collection of memoirs from Black and Asian staff of the fire brigade, Bailey described how he saved the life of another firefighter who had fainted, by bringing him down to the ground in a fireman's lift.

 

Though he was talented as a firefighter, and making positive contributions to the community, he still faced discrimination in the position, and he left the job in 1965 due to have being passed over for promotion several times. Today, though there are still areas that require change, 32% of employees of the fire department are from black or ethnic minority backgrounds, thanks to the work of Bailey and others like him. Bailey also made positive change by being one of London's first black mental welfare officers and psychiatric social workers, although he is most well remembered in his role as a firefighter. He continued to follow African and Caribbean politics and campaigned for the rights of the black working class, until his death in 2015.

 

Want to find out more about Frank Bailey? Click here for more information.

October 24 - The United Nations is Established

This Day in History: 24 October 2020

 

24 October 1945

 

75 years ago, today, the United Nations Charter was born. The principles had been first formulated in April, at the San Francisco Conference, presided over by American President Franklin Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin. This conference laid out a structure for a new international organisation that was to prevent another war from occurring, after both World Wars had decimated Europe and many other nations. Since the old League of Nations had not prevented the outbreak of World War II, the need for an organisation to prevent international conflict and stimulate peace was of a high necessity.

 

Two other important objectives described in the Charter were respecting the principles of equal rights and self-determination of all peoples. This was originally directed at smaller nations now vulnerable to invasion by the communist nations emerging from the war. International cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems around the world was also aimed for. The new UN Security Council was made up of the United States, Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and China. However, the initiatives proposed by the countries were easier said than done.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the United Nations? Click here for more information, or here for more about the failure of the League of Nations.

Black History Month - Wilfred Wood

Black History Month: 23 October 2020

 

Wilfred Denniston Wood, born in Barbados in 1936, became the Bishop of Croydon in 1985 and the first black bishop in the Church of England. Being struck by the harsh conditions that black immigrants had to undergo and by the problems of the inner city, Wood maintained an active interest in race relations and social justice in London. He noticed black youths being treated poorly and at times criminally by law enforcement. He condemned how young black people were systematically prevented from mounting the first rung of the career ladder due to severe racial bias. He witnessed the multiple barriers to housing for black families as they put up with abysmal living conditions and had little support from officials to fight their corner.

 

Thus, he used his authority to set up a fund to support black families in need, established a credit union to create sustainable ongoing income, opened Saturday schools to supplement education, formed a successful job club, and established a housing agency. He was a founder member of the Paddington Churches Housing Association and was appointed the Bishop of London's race relations office in 1966. He dedicated his life to not only faith but improving the lives within unfairly neglected black communities.

 

Want to learn more about Bishop Wilfred Wood? Click here for more information.

Black History Month - Charlie Williams

Black History Month: 22 October 2020

 

Charlie Williams was one of Britain's first post-war professional black footballers who later found even greater fame as a popular comedian and entertainer. His father, also Charles, had come to Britain in 1914 from Barbados, and enlisted in the Royal Engineers. Charlie was brought up in Yorkshire and after the Second World War, he turned professional, and signed for Doncaster Rovers in 1948.

 

Following his retirement from football in 1959, Williams tried his hand as a singer in local working men's clubs but decided to move into comedy full-time. He eventually became Britain's first well-known black television comedian. He reached the pinnacle of his comedy career in the early 1970s. In 1972, he spent a six-month season at the London Palladium. Williams was appointed an MBE in 1999 for his charity work. He was also given a lifetime achievement award at the Black Comedy Awards in 2000.

 

Want to find out more about Charlie Williams? Click here for more information, or here for a video of some of Charlie's comedic work.

October 23 - Marcus Junius Brutus Commits Suicide

This Day in History: 23 October 2020

 

23 October 42 B.C.

 

2062 years ago, today, Marcus Junius Brutus, a leading conspirator in the assassination of Julius Caesar, died by suicide after his defeat at the second battle of Philippi. Mark Antony, out of great respect, ordered Brutus' body to be wrapped in Antony's most expensive purple mantle, but this was later stolen, and Antony ordered the thief to be executed. Brutus was later cremated, and his ashes were sent to his mother, Servilia. His wife, Porcia, was reported to have committed suicide upon hearing the news of her husband's death. However, there is some dispute to if this was the case.

 

Two years before his death, Brutus had joined Gaius Cassius in the plot against Julius Caesar, believing this would bring about the restoration of the Roman Republic. However, Caesar's assassination would instead plunge the Roman world into a series of civil wars. After being defeated by Antony at a battle in Philippi, Greece, Cassius killed himself. Brutus also took his own life once his army was crushed by Antony and Octavian, who would soon turn against each other. In 27 B.C., the Roman Republic was lost forever when the first emperor of Rome, being Octavian as Augustus Caesar, ascended.

 

Want to find out more about Brutus? Click here for more information, or here for more about the assassination of Caesar.

October 22 - The Highway Beautification Act is Signed

This Day in History: 22 October 2020

 

22 October 1965

 

55 years ago, today, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Highway Beautification Act, attempting to limit billboards and other forms of outdoor advertising along America's motorways. The act also encouraged 'scenic enhancement' by restricting junkyards and other unsightly roadside messes. It funded local efforts to clean up and landscape the green space on either side of the roadways, as well. However, the act was actually the pet project of the first lady, Lady Bird Johnson. She believed that beauty had social utility, so cleaning up city parks and removing ugly advertisements would make the nation a better place to look at and live in.

 

Many urban activists, along with many other people who were starting to think seriously about the consequences of the nation's poor environmental policies, supported the Johnsons' efforts. On the other hand, however, business groups, polluters and advertisers were not so excited. Lobbyists for the Outdoor Advertising Association of America were able to water down the bill significantly, as companies who had their billboards taken down were compensated massively. Nevertheless, the bill was very important, as it declared that nature was fragile and worth preserving, even just the strips along the country's motorways. This idea still holds great power today.

 

Want to find out more about the Highway Beautification Act? Click here for more information, or here for more about Lady Bird Johnson.

Black History Month - John Kent

Black History Month: 20 October 2020

 

John Kent was a British police constable at Maryport and is reported to be the first black police officer in Britain. He served seven years in the office of constable at Carlisle but was eventually dismissed for drunkenness in December 1844, following an earlier suspension.  This was common as clean drinking water was a rarity due to diseases like cholera. Kent was credited with several arrests. He provided several accounts in his later years, one of arresting two "coiners". After arresting one suspect, he handcuffed him to the fire grate in his own house. He left an unloaded pistol with his wife, telling her to shoot the prisoner if he tried to escape. Kent then apprehended the second outstanding suspect. Later, he became a court bailiff, then a Parish Constable at Longtown. Until 2006, when a former officer of Cumbria Constabulary discovered Kent's employment records, it was thought that Britain's first black police officer was Norwell Roberts.

 

Want to find out more about John Kent? Click here for more information, or here for more about Norwell Roberts.

Black History Month - Clive Sullivan

Black History Month: 21 October 2020

 

Clive Sullivan, a Welsh rugby league player, was the first black captain for Great Britain in any sport. Born in Cardiff, his rugby journey began in 1961 while he was serving in the army. He was chosen to play in an inter-corps match, and showed great potential, despite having injury doubts. Sullivan was eventually picked up by Hull FC. Although his first seasons were hampered by his army commitments and some injury concerns, he featured more prominently in 1964 after becoming free from his military duties. Whilst at Hull, he made 352 appearances and scored 250 tries.

 

During the 1960s and 70s, there were very few black athletes in key positions in British sport, but Sullivan was the person who would change that. Throughout his career, several black sporting role models, such as Tessa Sanderson and Neville Meade, began to feature prominently as well. However, after he led Great Britain to the World Cup, his return was not met with much positivity, due to social and racial issues. Nevertheless, he still broke down racial barriers and undoubtedly impacted Britain sport. After his death in 1985, the city of Hull held him in such high regard that the city centre was renamed Clive Sullivan Way in his honour.

 

Want to find out more about Clive Sullivan? Click here for more information, or here for more about black people in British sport.

October 21 - The Battle of Trafalgar

This Day in History: 21 October 2020

 

21 October 1805

 

215 years ago, today, the Battle of Trafalgar occurred between Admiral Lord Nelson's British fleet and a combined French and Spanish fleet. The battle began after Nelson caught sight of a Franco-Spanish force and divided his ships while preparing to engage. In the five hours of fighting, the British devasted the enemy fleet, destroying 19 ships. No British ships were lost, however, but 1,500 British seamen were killed or wounded. At the battle's fiercest point, a French sniper shot and killed Nelson. His last words, after being informed that victory was imminent, were: "Now I am satisfied. Thank God I have done my duty."

 

At sea, Lord Nelson and the Royal Navy were consistently victorious over Napoleon Bonaparte, who led France to greatness on the European mainland. Nelson's last and greatest victory against the French was the Battle of Trafalgar. The British victory at the battle ensured that Napoleon would never invade Britain. Nelson was hailed as the saviour of his nation after the battle was won and was given a grand funeral in St. Paul's Cathedral. In the newly named Trafalgar Square, a column was built in his memory, and many streets were renamed in his honour.

 

Want to find out more about the Battle of Trafalgar? Click here for more information, or here for more about Admiral Lord Nelson.

October 20 - The Red Scare Begins in Hollywood

This Day in History: 20 October 2020

 

20 October 1947

 

73 years ago, today, Congress began to investigate communists in Hollywood, initiating the Red Scare. After World War II ended, the Cold War intensified matters between the world's two superpowers, the capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union. In Washington, conservatives worked to expose communists in the government before focusing on alleged 'reds' in the liberal film industry. The House Un-American Activities Committee was tasked to lead the investigation. They grilled many prominent witnesses, asking bluntly if they had ever been a member of the Communist Party. Some witnesses, including director Elia Kazan and studio managers like Walt Disney and Jack Warner, gave the committee names of colleagues they suspected of being communists. Whether this was out of patriotism or fear is unknown.

 

When interrogated, a small group known as the 'Hollywood Ten' resisted, complaining the hearings were illegal and violated their First Amendment rights. They were all convicted of obstructing the investigation and were given jail terms. Due to Congress' pressure, Hollywood began a blacklist policy, banning works by people who had not been cleared by the committee. This list included playwright Arthur Miller and actor Orson Welles. Some of these blacklisted writers used pseudonyms to stay writing, while others wrote scripts that were credited to other writers. In 1997, the Writers' Guild of America changed the writing credits of 23 films made during this period, reversing some of the Red Scare's damage.

 

Want to find out more about the Red Scare? Click here for more information, or here for more about the House Un-American Activities Committee.

Black History Month - Zadie Smith

Black History Month: 19 October 2020

 

Zadie Smith, most well known for her debut novel White Teeth, was born in 1975 in London to an English father and Jamaican mother. During her teen years she enjoyed musical theatre and tap dancing and earned money as a jazz singer at university. Despite her initial interest in journalism, she studied English at Cambridge, and published White Teeth in 2000. It details three ethnically diverse families in London, and won several awards for its portrayal, including the Orange Prize for Fiction, the Guardian First Book Award, the Whitbread First Novel Award and the Commonwealth Writer's Prize. The novel was adapted for television in 2002. Her second novel, The Autograph Man, was published in 2002, and while gaining the same critical reception as White Teeth, was a commercial success. She also became Writer in Residence at the Institute of Contemporary Arts and became a professor of fiction at New York University in 2010. 

 

Want to find out more about Zadie Smith? Click here for more information, or here for more about her work.

Black History Month - Malorie Blackman

Black History Month: 18 October 2020

 

Malorie Blackman OBE was born in 1962 and is a British writer who held the position of Children's Laureate from 2013 to 2015. She primarily writes literature and television drama for children and young adults. She has used science fiction to explore social, ethical and racial issues. Though most of Blackman's characters, like herself, are black, Blackman chose not to foreground the issue of race and ethnic identity (until the publication of 'Noughts and Crosses'), but rather to depict black characters simply living their lives, whether in ordinary or unusual circumstances, without an overt focus on their race. This was because Blackman felt that her publishers were trying to pigeon-hole her as a 'black writer' who would 'write about race and nothing else'.

 

Her critically and popularly acclaimed 'Noughts and Crosses' series uses the setting of a fictional dystopia to explore racism. With 'Noughts and Crosses', Blackman addresses racial issues more overtly, depicting a world in which black people, or 'crosses', are the ruling elite and white people, or 'noughts', are confined to minority status, denied legal rights and work in menial jobs. Through the acutely satirical depiction of racism, Malorie stresses the importance of putting oneself in someone else's shoes. She is acknowledged as one of today's most imaginative and convincing writers for young readers.

 

Want to find out more about Blackman's incredible work? Click here for more information, or here for more about her life.

October 19 - The First Battle of Ypres Begins

This Day in History: 19 October 2020

 

19 October 1914

 

106 years ago, today, the First Battle of Ypres began, with Allied and German forces fighting to control the city and gain advantageous positions on the north coast of Belgium, during World War I. A protracted period of fierce combat was initiated, as the Germans opened their Flanders offensive and the Allies resisted, as they sought their own opportunities to attack. Until November 22, when the winter weather forced the battle to stop, the fighting continued, with both sides suffering heavy losses. The area between both positions became known as the Ypres Salient, where some of the war's bitterest and most brutal struggles would take place.

 

Prior to the battle, the German advance through Belgium and eastern France was weakened by Allied victory in the Battle of the Marne, beginning the 'Race to the Sea'. Each army attempted to outflank the other on their northward journey, building trench fortifications as they went. After the Germans captured Antwerp, the city's remaining Belgian forces withdrew to Ypres to reinforce the Belgian and French defences. The Germans, meanwhile, were preparing to launch the first phase of an offensive aimed to break the Allied lines and to capture Ypres and other channel ports. This manifested itself in the forms of the numerous Battles of Ypres.

 

Want to find out more about the First Battle of Ypres? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Second Battle of Ypres.

October 18 - Marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon

This Day in History: 18 October 2020

 

18 October 1469

 

551 years ago, today, Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castile, thus beginning a co-operative reign that would unite all the dominions of Spain, elevating the nation to a dominant world power. Together, they incorporated many Spanish dominions into their kingdom and, in 1478, introduced the Spanish Inquisition, the powerful and brutal homogenisation of the Spanish society. In 1492, the reconquest of Granada from the Moors was completed, and the crown ordered all Spanish Jews to convert to Christianity, with the Spanish Muslims being handed a similar order four years later.

 

Before the two were married, Isabella had heard that Ferdinand was handsome, and he had been informed of her beauty. However, Isabella's half-brother, King Enrique IV of Castile, forbade the two from meeting. They instead met in secret, with Ferdinand disguised as a merchant, and their small talk, that lasted for two hours, led to their wedding. Afterwards, the King of Portugal, who had a claim to the Spanish throne, declared war against Isabella, but Ferdinand helped Isabella defeat her opponents by demoralising them, while Isabella rode out to negotiate with rebels in a local revolt. Their marriage and subsequent events secured their place in history and religion as 'the Catholic monarchs'.

 

Want to find out more about the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about the Spanish Reconquista.

Black History Month - Margaret Busby

Black History Month: 17 October 2020

 

Margaret Busby was born in Ghana and educated in the UK. She was Britain's youngest and first black female book publisher when she co-founded Allison and Busby in 1967. An independent editor, writer, broadcaster and critic since the 1990s, Margaret has contributed to many publications – including The Guardian, The Observer, New Statesman and TLS – and judged numerous literary prizes. She has worked continuously for diversity within the publishing industry and in the 1980s was a founding member of the organization Greater Access to Publishing (GAP), which engaged in campaigns for increased Black representation in British publishing.

 

In 1992, Margaret compiled the pioneering anthology Daughters of Africa, which brought together writing by more than 200 women of African descent. Her follow-up, New Daughters of Africa, added another 200 writers and was published to great acclaim last year. She has been awarded the Royal Society of Literature's prestigious Benson Medal, and the Royal African Society's inaugural Lifetime Achievement Award. She was appointed OBE for services to literature and publishing in 2006.

 

Want to find out more about Margaret Busby? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about how she got into publishing.

October 17 - OPEC Cuts Oil Exports

This Day in History: 17 October 2020

 

17 October 1973

 

47 years ago, today, the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries, consisting of many oil producing Arab nations, announced their decision to cut oil exports to the United States and other nations that militarily helped Israel during the Yom Kippur War. According to OPEC, exports were to be reduced by 5% every month until Israel evacuated the territories gained in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. However, Israel refused to withdraw. In December, a full oil embargo was imposed against the United States and many other countries, initiating a serious energy crisis in the United States and other nations dependent on Arab oil.

 

In 1960, OPEC was founded by Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Venezuela with the objective of raising the price of oil. They had little impact at first, but by the early 1970s, an increase in demand and the decline of US oil production gave it more popularity. In 1974, the embargo was lifted once Henry Kissinger, the US Secretary of State, negotiated a military disengagement between Syria and Israel. Nevertheless, oil prices remained very high. By the 1980s, the influence of OPEC on the world, however, began to decline, as Western nations were successfully exploiting alternate sources of energy, like coal and nuclear power.

 

Want to find out more about OPEC? Click here for more information, or here for more about the 1970s energy crisis.

Black History Month - Olive Morris

Black History Month: 16 October 2020

 

Olive Morris was a community activist in South London during the 1970s. She led protests and demonstrations, while also helping to create the Brixton Black Women's Group in 1973, one of Britain's first official networks for black women. When she was only 16, she became involved in an incident where police tried to arrest a Nigerian diplomat, who had parked his Mercedes in Brixton to purchase some records. Olive came forward and physically tried to stop the police from attacking the diplomat, causing the police to instead arrest her and assault her. This was only an early incident of Olive's commitment to challenging oppression.

 

In the late 1960s, Olive became involved in the British Black Panther Movement, whose mission was to promote self-determination and challenge the British state. During her years studying at Manchester University, she also became involved in the community struggles in Moss Side, contributing to the formation of the Black Women's Mutual Aid and the Manchester Black Women's Co-op. At the age of 27, she died, and was buried in Streatham Vale Cemetery. However, her legacy still lives on as in 2011, the Olive Morris Memorial Award was launched to give bursaries to young black women.

 

Want to find out more about Olive Morris? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Memorial Award.

October 16 - The Long March Begins

This Day in History: 16 October 2020 

 

16 October 1934 

 

86 years ago, today, the Long March between the Nationalists and the Chinese Communists began. Beginning at 5:00pm, they confused the Nationalists with their secrecy and rear-guard actions, so that it was several weeks before they realised that the Red Army had fled. This retreating force initially consisted of 86,000 troops, and marchedat night, when the enemy was not near. However, the first disaster came in November, when the Nationalists blocked the Communists' route across the Hsiang River, but they were able to overcome it. After enduring starvation, and aerial bombardment, Mao halted his army at the Great Wall of China a year later, ending the Long March.  

 

The Chinese Civil War had begun between the Nationalists and Communists in 1927. Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the Communists employed guerrilla tactics to resist successfully the first four campaigns. However, in the fifth, Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the Nationalists, raised 700,000 troops to resist the communists. The Long March was the longest continuous march in the history of warfare and marked the emergence of Mao Zedong as the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communists. The Chinese Civil War resumed in 1945, and four years later, the Nationalists were defeated. Mao proclaimed the People's Republic of China and served as its chairman until his death in 1976. 

 

Want to find out more about the Long March? Click here for more information, or here for an animated video about the Chinese Civil War.