This Week in the Middle East - The Sykes-Picot Agreement

 

This Week’s Historical Theme: The Middle East 

 

19 May 1916 

 

A significant event throughout the history of the Middle East is the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The First World War was a turning point in the Arab struggle for independence against their Turkish rulers under the Ottoman empire. Turkey fought on the German side against Britian and its allies. As the British navy were beginning to make more use out of oil, they were afraid that their supplies of oil from Persia might be cut off by the Turks and also wished to protect the Suez Canal. As a result, they decided to encourage the Arabs to rebel against their Turkish rulers and seek independence. The British high commissioner in Egypt, Sir Herbert McMahon, exchanged several letters with Hussein, the sharif of Mecca, promising that if the Arabs fought against the Turks, the British would support Arab independence. As a result, in 1916 an Arab army was raised and led by Emir (Prince) Faisal, the son of Hussein. In 1917, British troops entered Jerusalem, the capital of Palestine, driving out the Turks. 

 

Having fought for their independence from the Turks, the Arabs were determined to be completely self-governed. British and French colonial interests got in the way of this as they wished to maintain their power and influence in the Middle East. They had made a secret agreement in 1916 to carve up Turkey’s Arab lands after the war and share them out between themselves. This is known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement. After the conclusion of WWI, The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 gave Britain mandates to govern Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq, and France mandates to govern Syria and Lebanon. These regions were divided by the Sykes-Picot borders which divided the Middle East into spheres of influence with little regard for the problems this would subsequently cause. 

 

Want to find out more about the Sykes-Picot Agreement? Click here for more information, or here for more about Mandatory Palestine. 

 

 

This Week in Ukraine - The Declaration of Independence

This Week's Historical Theme: The Ukraine

 

26 January 1918

 

A significant event throughout the history of the Ukraine that occurred in January was their declaration of independence. The majority of the country had been incorporated into the Russian empire after the second partition of Poland in 1793, while the remaining section remained part of the Austro-Hungarian empire and was a key battleground of World War I's Eastern Front. Following the overthrow of the Tsar in February 1917, Ukraine set up a provisional government and proclaimed itself a republic within the structure of a federated Russia. After Lenin and his Bolsheviks rose to power in November, Ukraine declared its complete independence.

 

However, Ukraine's Rada government, that had formed after the secession, had difficulty imposing its rule onto the people in the face of Bolshevik opposition and counter-revolutionary activity. As Ukraine was seen as an ideal to Germany and Austria, they brought in troops to preserve order, forcing Russian troops that were occupying the country to leave under the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The defeat of the Central Powers in November 1918 forced Germany and Austria to finally withdraw from Ukraine. Despite this, the Ukraine government later allied themselves with Poland, and in 1922, Ukraine became one of the original constituent republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and would not regain its independence until the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991.

 

Want to find out more about the independence of Ukraine? Click here for more information, or here for more about their independence day.

November 11 - The Armistice Ends World War I

This Day in History: 11 November 2020

 

11 November 1918

 

102 years ago, today, World War I ended when Germany signed an armistice agreement with the Allies in France. The war had left nine million soldiers dead and 21 million wounded, with Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Great Britain each losing nearly a million or more lives. In addition to this, at least five million civilians died from disease, starvation or exposure. The war became known as the 'war to end all wars' because of the great slaughter and destruction it caused. However, the peace treaty that officially ended the conflict, the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, forced punitive terms on Germany that destabilised Europe and laid the groundwork for World War II.

 

The war had been sparked in 1914 when Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was shot to death. He had been inspecting his uncle's imperial armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina, despite the threat of Serbian nationalists. Had Gavrilo Princip, the murderer, not been buying a sandwich on the same street as where the Archduke's car was being turned around, it could be said that the war would not have happened. The Serbian government was blamed for the attack.

 

Want to find out more about the armistice that ended the First World War? Click here for more information, or here for more about the death of Franz Ferdinand.

October 30 - The Armistice of Mudros

This Day in History: 30 October 2020

 

30 October 1918

 

102 years ago, today, the Armistice of Mudros concluded, ending hostilities in the Middle East between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War One the following day. The treaty also effectively marked the dissolution of a once mighty empire. It was signed between the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs, Rauf Bey, and the British Admiral Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe. By its terms, Turkey had to open the Dardanelle and Bosporus straits to Allied warships and its forts to military occupation. They were also forced to demobilise their army, release all prisoners of war and evacuate its Arab provinces.

 

During World War One, the Ottoman Empire initially stayed neutral, but soon formed an alliance with Germany and entered the war on the side of the Central Powers. The Turks subsequently fought successfully to defend the Gallipoli Peninsula against a massive Allied invasion in 1915-1916. However, by 1918, defeat by invading British and Russian forces and an Arab revolt had combined to destroy the Ottoman economy and devastate its land, leaving millions dead and millions more starving. The Ottoman government and several Turkish leaders felt the need to contact the Allies to search for peace.

 

Want to find out more about the Armistice of Mudros? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about the Ottoman Empire during World War One.

October 26 - Brazil Enters World War I

This Day in History: 26 October 2020

 

26 October 1917

 

103 years ago, today, Brazil declared war on Germany, and thus entered the First World War on the side of the Allies. The nation had been increasingly threatened by Germany's policy of unrestricted submarine warfare over the course of the first two years of World War One. Brazil's government subsequently sought to amend its constitution to allow it to declare war. The Brazilian foreign minister, Dr. Nilo Pecanha, justified his country's decision to enter the struggle by noting Germany's attacks on international trade. He also spoke about the higher purpose of creating a more peaceful and democratic post-war world.

 

Although Brazil's actual contribution to the Allied war effort was limited to one medical unit and some airmen, its participation was rewarded with a presence at the post-war negotiations. However, Brazil's three official delegates at the Paris Peace Conference angered Portugal, who had sent 60,000 soldiers into war but only had one delegate. Since Britain supported Portugal in the disagreement and the US backed Brazil, no change was made. In June 1919, Brazil was one of the 27 nations to sign the Versailles Treaty, along with many other Allied Latin America nations, including Cuba, Haiti, Peru and Uruguay.

 

Want to find out more about Brazil's role in World War One? Click here for more information, or here for a video instead.

October 19 - The First Battle of Ypres Begins

This Day in History: 19 October 2020

 

19 October 1914

 

106 years ago, today, the First Battle of Ypres began, with Allied and German forces fighting to control the city and gain advantageous positions on the north coast of Belgium, during World War I. A protracted period of fierce combat was initiated, as the Germans opened their Flanders offensive and the Allies resisted, as they sought their own opportunities to attack. Until November 22, when the winter weather forced the battle to stop, the fighting continued, with both sides suffering heavy losses. The area between both positions became known as the Ypres Salient, where some of the war's bitterest and most brutal struggles would take place.

 

Prior to the battle, the German advance through Belgium and eastern France was weakened by Allied victory in the Battle of the Marne, beginning the 'Race to the Sea'. Each army attempted to outflank the other on their northward journey, building trench fortifications as they went. After the Germans captured Antwerp, the city's remaining Belgian forces withdrew to Ypres to reinforce the Belgian and French defences. The Germans, meanwhile, were preparing to launch the first phase of an offensive aimed to break the Allied lines and to capture Ypres and other channel ports. This manifested itself in the forms of the numerous Battles of Ypres.

 

Want to find out more about the First Battle of Ypres? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Second Battle of Ypres.

September 6 - The First Tank is Produced

This Day in History: 6 September 2020

 

6 September 1915

 

105 years ago, today, the first tank, nicknamed 'Little Willie' was produced. Initially, it weighed 14 tons, got frequently stuck in trenches and crawled over rough terrain at only two miles an hour. However, tanks eventually transformed military battlefields as improvements were made to the original prototype. A second prototype, Big Willie, was produced after Little Willie's underwhelming performance. By 1916, this vehicle was deemed ready for battle and made its debut at the First Battle of the Somme. The first batch of tanks was hot, noisy and suffered malfunctions on the battlefield, but people realised the tank's potential.

 

The British developed the tank in response to the trench warfare of World War One. The idea of an armoured vehicle with conveyer-belt-like tracks over wheels was championed by two men named Ernest Swinton and William Hankey. They appealed to Winston Churchill, the navy minister, resulting in a Landships Committee begin organised to start developing a prototype. In order to keep the project secret from enemies, production workers were told the vehicles they were building would carry water on the battlefield. Tanks rapidly became an important military weapon and played a prominent role during World War Two.

 

Want to find out more about Little Willie? Click here for more information, or here for a video about how useless Little Willie was.

Belgium Trip 2013

Here is the powerpoint that was shared at the Belgium Battlefields Trip Information Evening on 11 February. If you have any further questions please contact the Nonsuch History Department.


You can also download the powerpoint here using this link. Please let us know if you are having any problems accessing this.

The First World War from Above

BBC1 showed this evening a fascinating documentary using archive aerial photography from the First World War to show the extent of the destruction created by the conflict. Film footage from an airship showed in close detail how much damage had been wrought both on the battlefields and towns such as Ypres, which was totally devastated and yet still had people on the ground trying to make some sort of a living. The film also touched upon the efforts needed by Royal Flying Corps pilots to take the photographs (their death rates were higher than soldiers in the trenches) and the work of the tunnellers, who set off massive underground explosions (leaving craters still visible today) to try and gain a military advantage. The size of the 29 simultaneous explosions at Messines, near Ypres, was so great it "rattled the teacups in Downing Street". Highly recommended viewing for this Remembrance Week.

PS: More examples of the photography can be seen here and here. The photo at the top of this post shows a German barracks (identified by the British by the flowerbeds the soldiers had dug to amuse themselves) before and after it was shelled.

German Reunification

Sunday 3 October was an important day in Germany for 2 reasons. It was the 20th anniversary of reunification, which was marked by an official ceremony in Bremen and other events across the country. However it also is the day that Germany will make its final reparations payment for its debts from the 1st World War, 92 years after the War ended. The reason it has taken so long is that Germany was allowed to wait until it was unified before it needed to pay the final interest charges, a process that was spread out over 20 years. The anniversary has sparked plenty of articles, including this analysis of Germany's changing role in Europe, and this article from Der Spiegel about the behind-the-scenes negotiations between Germany and France 20 years ago. It also contains a useful "road to reunification" timeline.

Dulce et Decorum Est

Here is a video of Mr Dant giving his thoughts on the poetry of Wilfred Owen and others during Miss D'Souza's class today, including some recitals in Latin! Many thanks to Mr Dant for his help and his agreement to appear on the blog. (It takes a moment to load up but stick with it!)