Nonsuch HP is 12!

 

Today is Nonsuch HP's 12th birthday. To celebrate this, the blog has been tidied up a bit and the the internet safety policy updated to reflect the substantial changes in the internet and social media that have taken place recently.

This also seemed a good opportunity to look back over the hundreds of articles that have been published over the years. Many still remain relevant and of interest, and can be found easily using the "tags" which you can find on the right hand side. Over time we will re-tag or highlight those articles that are particularly worth reading. Here are some tags that we recommend:

• Black History
• Cold War
• Middle East
• Tudors

We also recommend our "pages" on special subjects which you can see on the right hand side, in particular:

• Nonsuch Palace
• Historical Fiction (although this needs some serious updating)

Please let us know if there are any topics you think the blog should be covering in the next 12 years!

This Week in the Middle East - The Sykes-Picot Agreement

 

This Week’s Historical Theme: The Middle East 

 

19 May 1916 

 

A significant event throughout the history of the Middle East is the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The First World War was a turning point in the Arab struggle for independence against their Turkish rulers under the Ottoman empire. Turkey fought on the German side against Britian and its allies. As the British navy were beginning to make more use out of oil, they were afraid that their supplies of oil from Persia might be cut off by the Turks and also wished to protect the Suez Canal. As a result, they decided to encourage the Arabs to rebel against their Turkish rulers and seek independence. The British high commissioner in Egypt, Sir Herbert McMahon, exchanged several letters with Hussein, the sharif of Mecca, promising that if the Arabs fought against the Turks, the British would support Arab independence. As a result, in 1916 an Arab army was raised and led by Emir (Prince) Faisal, the son of Hussein. In 1917, British troops entered Jerusalem, the capital of Palestine, driving out the Turks. 

 

Having fought for their independence from the Turks, the Arabs were determined to be completely self-governed. British and French colonial interests got in the way of this as they wished to maintain their power and influence in the Middle East. They had made a secret agreement in 1916 to carve up Turkey’s Arab lands after the war and share them out between themselves. This is known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement. After the conclusion of WWI, The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 gave Britain mandates to govern Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq, and France mandates to govern Syria and Lebanon. These regions were divided by the Sykes-Picot borders which divided the Middle East into spheres of influence with little regard for the problems this would subsequently cause. 

 

Want to find out more about the Sykes-Picot Agreement? Click here for more information, or here for more about Mandatory Palestine. 

 

 

This Week in the Middle East - The Creation of the United Arab Emirates

This Week's Historical Theme: The Middle East

 

21 December 1971

 

A significant event throughout the history of the Middle East that occurred in December was the formation of the United Arab Emirates. This created a small state with the union of six small Gulf kingdoms, to which a seventh was soon added, that had an outsized role in the global economy. Since this, the sovereign nation has enjoyed the profits of its natural resources, including its reserves of oil and natural gas. Its wealth has turned the Emirates into a major hub of trade, travel, tourism, and finance. The tallest structure in the world, Dubai's Burj Khalifa, is also emblematic of the Emirates' construction boom and rise to global prominence.

 

The kingdoms on the coast of the Arabian Peninsula had been under British protection in the 1820s, which allowed for the discovery of the region's vast oil reserves. This led to the decrease of the British Empire's influence, as the kingdoms became major suppliers of oil. Therefore, in 1968, the British government declared their withdrawal, leaving the people of the region to their own devices. As they were dwarfed by their neighbours in terms of size, population, and military, the kingdoms attempted to organise themselves into one political unit. Although the negotiations proved difficult, the United Arab Emirates was formed, including the kingdoms of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai and Umm al-Quwain. Two months later, Ras al-Khaimah joined.

 

Want to find out more about the creation of the United Arab Emirates? Click here for more information, or here for a wider history of the UAE.

November 29 - The UN Votes to Partition Palestine

This Day in History: 29 November 2020

 

29 November 1947

 

73 years ago, today, the UN voted for the partition of Palestine, and the creation of an independent Jewish state, despite strong Arab opposition. This plan proposed that the Jews were to possess more than half of Palestine, even though they made up less than half of Palestine's population. The Palestinian Arabs, aided by volunteers from other countries, fought against the Zionist forces. Despite this, the Jews secured full control of their allocated area of Palestine and also some Arab territory. In May 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed by Jewish Agency Chairman David Ben-Gurion, and the next day, forces from Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded.

 

The modern conflict between Jews and Arabs in Palestine had dated back to the 1910s, when both groups laid claim to the territory, controlled by the British at the time. These Jews mainly consisted of Zionists, recent emigrants from Europe and Russia who came to the Jews' ancient homeland to establish a Jewish national state. The native Palestinian Arabs, on the other hand, sought to prevent Jewish immigration and set up a secular Palestinian state. The British also attempted to limit Jewish immigration as a means of appeasing the Arabs. However, many Jews illegally entered Palestine during World War II, as a result of the Holocaust in Europe.

 

Want to find out more about the UN partition of Palestine? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Arab-Israeli conflict.

November 4 - The Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin

This Day in History: 4 November 2020

 

4 November 1995

 

25 years ago, today, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was shot fatally after attending a peace rally in Tel Aviv's Kings Square in Israel. Later, Rabin died in surgery at Ichilov Hospital in Tel Aviv. He had been walking to his car when he was shot in the arm and the back by Yigal Amir, a 27-year-old Jewish law student who had connections to the far-right Jewish group, Eyal. Israeli police arrested Amir at the scene of the shooting, and he later confessed to the assassination. He explained at his arraignment that he killed Rabin because the Prime Minister wanted to "give out country to the Arabs."

 

Rabin had been a leader of the Arab-Israeli War of 1948 and served as chief-of-staff of Israel's armed forces during the Six-Day War of 1967. After serving as Israel's ambassador to the United States, Rabin entered into the Labour Party and became Prime Minister in 1974. In this role, he conducted the negotiations that resulted in a 1974 cease-fire with Syria and the 1975 military disengagement agreement between Israel and Egypt. In October 1994, Rabin and Yasir Arafat shared the Nobel Peace Prize, due to their formal peace agreement with the Palestinians.

 

Want to find out more about the assassination of Rabin? Click here for more information, or here for more about his life.

November 2 - The Balfour Declaration is Written

This Day in History: 2 November 2020

 

2 November 1917

 

103 years ago, today, the Balfour Declaration was written. This was a letter from Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Britain's most illustrious Jewish citizen, Baron Lionel Walter Rothschild, expressing the British government's support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The letter stated that "His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people." Britain had supported the Zionist movement due to the country's concerns regarding the First World War. Prime Minister Lloyd George did hold a genuine belief in Zionism's righteousness, but Britain's leaders also hoped that a supporting statement would help gain Jewish support for the Allied war effort.

 

The influence of the Balfour Declaration on the course of post-war events was immediate. According to the 'mandate' system created by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Britain was entrusted with the administration of Palestine, with the understanding that it would support both the Jewish and Arab inhabitants. However, it did not succeed in maintaining the letter and spirit of the mandate. Britain announced its termination of its mandate over Palestine in 1947, after the UN General Assembly adopted the resolution to partition Palestine.

 

Want to find out more about the Balfour Declaration? Click here for more information, or here for more about the British mandate of Palestine.

October 30 - The Armistice of Mudros

This Day in History: 30 October 2020

 

30 October 1918

 

102 years ago, today, the Armistice of Mudros concluded, ending hostilities in the Middle East between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War One the following day. The treaty also effectively marked the dissolution of a once mighty empire. It was signed between the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs, Rauf Bey, and the British Admiral Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe. By its terms, Turkey had to open the Dardanelle and Bosporus straits to Allied warships and its forts to military occupation. They were also forced to demobilise their army, release all prisoners of war and evacuate its Arab provinces.

 

During World War One, the Ottoman Empire initially stayed neutral, but soon formed an alliance with Germany and entered the war on the side of the Central Powers. The Turks subsequently fought successfully to defend the Gallipoli Peninsula against a massive Allied invasion in 1915-1916. However, by 1918, defeat by invading British and Russian forces and an Arab revolt had combined to destroy the Ottoman economy and devastate its land, leaving millions dead and millions more starving. The Ottoman government and several Turkish leaders felt the need to contact the Allies to search for peace.

 

Want to find out more about the Armistice of Mudros? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about the Ottoman Empire during World War One.

October 29 - The Suez Crisis Begins

This Day in History: 29 October 2020

 

29 October 1956

 

64 years ago, today, the Suez Crisis began when Israel invaded Egypt. They would soon be joined by French and British forces, initiating a serious event during the Cold War in the Middle East. The joint attack had been motivated by Egypt's nationalisation of the Suez Canal in July. Prior to this, also, the Egyptian military had been pressuring the British to end their military presence in the canal zone. The Egyptian leader, General Nasser, had also been engaged in sporadic battles with Israeli soldiers along both nations' border. Nasser did nothing to hide his hostility towards the Zionist nation.

 

After the Israelis attacked, they were shocked to find that British and French forces did not immediately follow behind them. Instead of a lightning strike by overwhelming force, the attack simmered down, and the United Nations quickly passed a resolution calling for a cease-fire. The Soviet Union began to issue ominous threats about coming to Egypt's aid, and a dangerous situation developed. The United States sternly warned the Soviet Union to stay out of the situation, but also pressured the British, French and Israeli governments to withdraw. In late 1956 and early 1957, they did so, ending the Suez Crisis.

 

Want to find out more about the Suez Crisis? Click here for more information, or here for more about General Nasser and Israel.

October 17 - OPEC Cuts Oil Exports

This Day in History: 17 October 2020

 

17 October 1973

 

47 years ago, today, the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries, consisting of many oil producing Arab nations, announced their decision to cut oil exports to the United States and other nations that militarily helped Israel during the Yom Kippur War. According to OPEC, exports were to be reduced by 5% every month until Israel evacuated the territories gained in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. However, Israel refused to withdraw. In December, a full oil embargo was imposed against the United States and many other countries, initiating a serious energy crisis in the United States and other nations dependent on Arab oil.

 

In 1960, OPEC was founded by Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Venezuela with the objective of raising the price of oil. They had little impact at first, but by the early 1970s, an increase in demand and the decline of US oil production gave it more popularity. In 1974, the embargo was lifted once Henry Kissinger, the US Secretary of State, negotiated a military disengagement between Syria and Israel. Nevertheless, oil prices remained very high. By the 1980s, the influence of OPEC on the world, however, began to decline, as Western nations were successfully exploiting alternate sources of energy, like coal and nuclear power.

 

Want to find out more about OPEC? Click here for more information, or here for more about the 1970s energy crisis.

October 13 - The Landshut Crisis

This Day in History: 13 October 2020

 

13 October 1977

 

43 years ago, today, four Palestinians hijacked a Lufthansa airliner, named the 'Landshut', and demanded for the release of 11 imprisoned members the German terrorist group, Baader-Meinhof, also known as the Red Army Faction. This was a group of ultra-left revolutionaries who terrorised Germany for three decades, as they assassinated more than 30 corporate, military and government leaders in an attempt to topple German capitalism. Their activity had peaked in the same year, leading to the national crisis of the 'German Autumn'. In total, they were responsible for 34 deaths, and many injuries, and 27 members or supporters were killed.

 

The Palestinian hijackers had taken the plane on a 6-country journey, eventually landing in Mogadishu, Somalia, four days later, after shooting one of the plane's pilots. Early the next morning, a German special forces team stormed the aircraft, releasing 86 hostages and killing three of the four hijackers. Luckily, only one of the German soldiers was wounded. Later that day, the Red Army Faction's imprisoned leaders responded to the news by committing suicide in their jail cell. After the crisis, the German government stated that it would never again negotiate with terrorists. Chancellor Helmut Schmidt was widely praised for his decision to rescue the hostages, although some countries criticised the risk-taking.

 

Want to find out more about the Landshut crisis? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Red Army Faction.

October 3 - Iraq Achieves Independence

This Day in History: 3 October 2020

 

3 October 1932

 

88 years ago, today, Iraq gained independence when Britain terminated its mandate over the Arab nation. With the admission of the country into the League of Nations, Iraq was made independent after 17 years of British rule and centuries of Ottoman rule. During World War One, Iraq had been seized from Ottoman Turkey, and Britain was granted a mandate by the League of Nations to govern the nation in 1920. A Hashemite monarchy was organised under British protection in 1921, and in 1932, the kingdom was granted independence. The Iraqi government still maintained close economic and military ties with Britain, however.

 

Iraq's friendly relation with Britain sparked several anti-British revolts. A pro-Axis revolt in 1941 led to a British military intervention, and the Iraqi government agreed to support the Allied war effort. In 1958, the monarchy was overthrown, and for the next two decades, Iraq was ruled by a series of military and civilian governments. Over two decades later, General Saddam Hussein became Iraqi dictator, and held onto power with an iron first, until he disappeared and later died in an American-led coalition invasion of Iraq in 2003. Today, October 3 is celebrated as National Iraqi Day.

 

Want to find out more about the independence of Iraq? Click here for more information, or here for more about Iraqi Independence Day.

September 22 - The Iran-Iraq War Begins

This Day in History: 22 September 2020

 

22 September 1980

 

40 years ago, today, the Iran-Iraq War began when long-standing border disputes and political turmoil in Iran prompted Iraqi President Saddam Hussein to launch an invasion against Iran's oil-producing province of Khuzestan. They primarily wished to cripple Iran and prevent the 1979 Iranian Revolution from moving to Iraq and threaten the Iraqi leadership. They also wanted to replace Iran as the dominant state in the Persian Gulf, which had not previously been possible due to Iran's high economic and military status, as well as its close alliances with the United States and Israel.

 

After initial advances, the Iraqi offense was repulsed, and they withdrew, seeking a peace agreement. However, the Ayatollah Khomeini renewed fighting. Stalemates and the deaths of thousands of young Iranian conscripts followed. Population centres in both countries were also bombed, and Iraq employed many chemical weapons. In the Persian Gulf, a 'tanker war' decreased shipping and increased oil prices. A cease-fire was agreed by Iraq in 1988, ending the eight-year war. The conflict has often been compared to World War One in terms of tactics used, which includes trench warfare and human wave attacks. It is estimated that 500,000 Iraqi and Iranian soldiers died, in addition to a smaller number of civilians. The end of the war did not result in reparations or border changes.

 

Want to find out more about the Iran-Iraq War? Click here for more information, or here for an animated video explaining the war.

September 13 - The First Oslo Accord is Signed

This Day in History: 13 September 2020

 

13 September 1993

 

27 years ago, today, the Oslo Accords were officially signed at a public ceremony in Washington, D.C., between the PLO chairman, Yasser Arafat, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and American President Bill Clinton. The accord provided for the creation of a Palestinian interim self-government and decided that this would have responsibility for the administration of territory under its control. With the signing, the Israel Defence Forces were forced to withdraw from parts of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. The PLO also acknowledged the State of Israel and pledged to reject violence, while Israel likewise recognised the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people.

This agreement was historic as the Jews and the Arabs in Palestine had been constantly fighting for many decades before the accords. However, matters began to improve once Yasser Arafat had recognised the State of Israel's right to exist in 1988, thus authorising the beginning of 'land-for-peace' negotiations with Israel. Although Israel initially refused to open direct talks with the PLO, newly elected Israeli leader Yitzhak Rabin vowed to move quickly on the peace process. He froze new Israeli settlements in the occupied territories and later authorised secret negotiations between Israel and the PLO. Even though the second Oslo Accord was signed in 1995, neither accord promised Palestinian statehood, and the peace process was stalled once right-wing Benjamin Netanyahu was elected prime minister.

Want to find out more about the Oslo Accords? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about the Arab-Israeli conflict.

September 5 - The Munich Olympics Massacre

This Day in History: 5 September 2020

 

5 September 1972

 

48 years ago, today, the Munich Olympics massacre began, when a group of Palestinian terrorists stormed the Olympic Village apartment of Israeli athletes. Two were killed, and nine others were taken hostage. The terrorists were part of a group known as Black September. In return for the release of the hostages, they demanded that Israel release over 230 Arabs being held in Israeli jails, as well as two German terrorists. At Munich airport, the nine Israeli hostages were killed along with five terrorists in a shootout. Olympic competition was suspended for 24 hours in memorial for the athletes.

 

At the main Munich Olympic stadium, after the memorial service was held, it was ordered that the games continue by the International Olympic Committee President Avery Brundage, in order to show that the terrorists had not won. Even though the tragedy deeply scarred the games, there were still many moments of great athletic achievement. This included American swimmer Mark Spitz's seven gold medals. In the aftermath of the murders and Olympics, the Israeli government, led by Golda Meir, hired a group of Mossad agents to track down and kill the Black September terrorists.

 

Want to find out more about the Munich Olympics massacre? Click here for more information, or watch the 2005 Stephen Spielberg film 'Munich', which was based on these events.

Five Years of War Cripples Syria

After over five years of violent conflict in Syria, what is left of the country is heartbreakingly unrecognisable, and the destruction is only set to worsen. With 2011 being the year of Arab spring, where peaceful anti-government protests turned into a full-scale civil war, most Syrian children do not even remember a time of peace. To this day, a quarter of a million people are dead as a result of how prolonged the proxy war has become: Intervention of foreign powers has only made it bloodier. Approximately half of Syria’s pre-war population of 23 million have been killed or forced to flee their homes, and now their refugee population is the largest in the world.

But have all of these refugees been finding refuge? Many opt for travelling to Syria’s neighboring countries, with Lebanon harboring a staggering 1 million of them. Others are risking their lives to travel to Europe in hopes of finding acceptance there, and not all of them make it across alive. However, most have barely started a journey to real freedom: According to UN estimation, 6.6 million refugees are internally displaced in Syria, especially in cities, where there is stronger humanitarian support than the countryside. As of February 2016, the government only holds 40% of Syria, the rest belonging to other factions - for example, ISIL - that are involved in the war.

According to a review of the political science on the duration of civil wars, Syria's conflict will most likely last through 2020. In only 2016 the country’s unemployment rate sits at its all-time high at 50%, and will continue to creep up; Most Syrians have been plunged into extreme poverty. An estimate of £5 billion is thought to be needed to help the 13 million in need of support, yet the exponential rise of refugees means the figure will inevitably increase, making it even less possible to achieve. With this in mind, it seems that Syria’s future is a dark one.

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Does Bin Laden Deserve a Place in History?

The dramatic events in Pakistan on Monday led to the death of Osama Bin Laden and the end of a nearly ten year-long manhunt following the terrorist attacks on September 11. His death is clearly significant, and has led to a huge amount of media coverage around the world and given Barack Obama a helpful victory at a politically significant time. This BBC article takes a longer view, considering Bin Laden's background and career and whether historians will consider him of significance in the long term, particularly in the light of the recent dramatic events in Egypt, Libya and Syria which have had little involvement from Al Qaeda.

Protests Timeline

Here is a very helpful timeline from the Guardian allowing you to keep track of the protest movement across the Middle East and North Africa, beginning with the death of Mohammed Bouazzi in Tunisia on 17 December. The vegetable seller set fire to himself after police confiscated his stall. The subsequent riots, spread by social networking sites, led to the overthrow of the Tunisian government and encouraged other groups to protest across the region.

Mubarak and Egypt

Here is a brief and interesting comment comparing events in Egypt this week with the assassination of Anwar Sadat in 1981 that led to Hosni Mubarak becoming President of Egypt. Mubarak has always been a staunch ally of the United States, giving President Obama very little room to manoeuvre when reacting to the very considerable demands for greater political freedom. We will see how things develop.

Shah Abbas

Iran has much been in the news lately, and this article provides an interesting account of a strong leader from its past, Shah Abbas (Seen in the centre of the image above) who came to the throne as a teenager in 1587 and so would have been a conteporary of Queen Elizabeth I. He pulled together a kingdom that had been wracked by civil war, expanding its borders all the way to Baghdad. He was tolerant of other religions but less so of his sons - 1 was murdered and 2 others blinded! He tried hard to make alliances with Europe and employed two Englishmen, the Shirley brothers, to negotiate for him. He was influential enough to even be referred to in The Merchant of Venice. The British Museum has just had an exhibition about him (sadly it has just closed) and more info can be seen here.