Happy Black History Month!

Happy Black History Month everyone! Throughout this month, Nonsuch's History and Politics Society will be posting about influential, historical, black individuals, in order to celebrate their achievements and their untold place in history.

 

Here are also some links to potentially look at:

 

Films and documentaries to watch: https://www.heart.co.uk/showbiz/tv-movies/black-history-month-2020-films-documentaries/

Advice on how to celebrate in the UK: https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/1341910/black-history-month-2020-events-how-to-celebrate-bhm-uk

Anti-racism charities to donate to: https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/black-lives-matter-charity-donate-uk-stephen-lawrence-stop-hate-a9544786.html

The African that transformed medieval England: https://www.historyextra.com/period/anglo-saxon/hadrian-clerk-libya-african-who-anglo-saxon-england/

Africa's medieval golden age: https://www.historyextra.com/period/what-was-africa-like-middle-ages-medieval-golden-age-culture/

African-American abolitionists in Britain: https://www.historyextra.com/period/victorian/african-american-abolitionists-britain-slavery-black-history-podcast-frederick-douglass/

The Bristol bus boycott: https://www.historyextra.com/period/20th-century/british-civil-rights-scandal-bristol-bus-boycott-what-happened/

 

 

 

Black History Month - Diane Abbott

Black History Month: 1 October 2020

 

Starting off our commemorative Black History Month posts for influential black individuals, we have Diane Abbott, the first ever black woman elected to be an MP. Along with Bernie Grant and Paul Boateng, she also became one of the first members of African descent in the House of Commons. Her parents, originally from Jamaica, immigrated to the United Kingdom in the early 1950s. After obtaining a Master's in History from Cambridge University, Diane joined the government as a Home Office Civil Servant, but later went onto becoming a journalist. As a member of the Labour Party, she served as a press officer for the Greater London Council and the Lambeth Borough Council, while being vocal on race and civil liberties issues.

 

After her election, Abbott occupied a left position in the Labour Party during the 1990s, when Prime Minister Tony Blair's reform program abandoned many of the party's traditional socialist policies. She became known for her support for human rights issues, and, as well as this, won a special human rights prize in 2008, awarded by the Law Society. After the 2010 British general election, where Labour lost its majority, Diane was named shadow minister for public health, and even kept her seat after Labour's poor outcome in the 2015 general election. In October 2016, Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn reshuffled his shadow cabinet, elevating Diane to the post of shadow home secretary, but stood down in February 2020, upon the election of Kier Starmer.

 

Want to find out more about Diane Abbot? Click here for more on how she fought against racism to become the first black female MP, or here for more about her role as an MP and her political views.

October 1 - Yosemite National Park Established

This Day in History: 1 October 2020

 

1 October 1890

 

130 years ago, today, an act of Congress created Yosemite National Park. Environmental trailblazer John Muir and his colleagues had campaigned for the congressional action, which was signed into law by President Benjamin Harrison. Native Americans had been the main residents of the Yosemite Valley prior to this, until the 1849 gold rush brought thousands of miners and settlers to the region. Yosemite Valley's ecosystem was damaged by the tourism this brought. To ward off further exploitation, conservatists convinced President Abraham Lincoln in 1864 to declare the area as a public trust of California. This marked the first time that the government protected land for public enjoyment.

 

Despite this, in 1889, John Muir found that the vast meadows surrounding Yosemite Valley were being overrun and destroyed by domestic sheep grazing. They lobbied for national park status for the large wilderness around the valley, causing Congress to set aside over 1,500 square miles of land for Yosemite National Park. Today, over 3 million people visit Yosemite annually, to see its stunning landmarks, such as the 2,425-foot-high Yosemite Falls, one of the world's tallest waterfalls, and the three groves of giant sequoias, the world's biggest trees.

 

Want to find out more about Yosemite National Park? Click here for more information, or here for more about the early environmentalists.

September 30 - The Munich Pact is Signed

This Day in History: 30 September 2020

 

30 September 1938

 

82 years ago, today, the Munich Pact was signed between the British and French Prime Ministers, Neville Chamberlain and Edouard Daladier, and Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. This agreement averted the outbreak of war but allowed Czechoslovakia to be given away to German conquest. Daladier despised the Pact's peace making with the Nazis, but Chamberlain was happy and even stayed behind in Munich to sign a single-page document with Hitler that he believed assured the future of Anglo-German peace. Chamberlain later flew home to Britain, where he addressed a joyful crowd in London, praising the Munich Pact for bringing 'peace in our time'.

 

The day after the Pact was signed, Hitler annexed the Czech Sudetenland, where he had wanted to evacuate its population of Czechoslovakians prior to the agreement. The Czechoslovak government subsequently chose submission over destruction by the German 'Wehrmacht', the armed forces of the Nazis. In March 1939, Hitler annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia, and the country ceased to exist. In September, 53 German army divisions invaded Poland despite British and French threats to intervene. Two days later, Chamberlain called for a British declaration of war against Germany, initiating World War Two. Chamberlain would later be replaced as Prime Minister by Winston Churchill after eight months of ineffective wartime leadership.

 

Want to find out more about the Munich Pact? Click here for more information, or here for more about Chamberlain as Prime Minister.

September 29 - The Babi Yar Massacre

This Day in History: 29 September 2020 

 

29 September 1941 

 

79 years ago, today, the Babi Yar massacre began in Nazi-occupied Ukraine, on the outskirts of Kiev. The city had been taken ten days prior by the German army, and special SS forces began to prepare to carry out Adolf Hitler's orders to exterminate all Jews and Soviet officials found in the area. More than 30,000 Jews were marched in small groups to the Babi Yar ravine in the north of the city, were ordered to strip naked, then machine-gunned into the ravine. The next day, the massacre ended, and the dead and wounded were covered over with dirt and rock. The massacre has been called the 'largest single massacre in the history of the Holocaust'.  

 

Between 1941 and 1943, thousands more Jews, Russian prisoners of war and Soviet officials were executed at the Babi Yar ravine in a similar manner. It is estimated that during the German occupation, between 100,000 and 150,000 people were killed at Babi Yar. As the German army retreated from the USSR, the Nazis attempted to hide the evidence of the massacres by exhuming the bodies and burning them in pyres. However, many eyewitnesses and other evidence verified the atrocities committed at Babi Yar, and thus became a symbol of Jewish suffering in the Holocaust.  

 

Want to find out more about the Babi Yar massacre? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Nazi occupation of Ukraine.

September 28 - William the Conqueror Arrives in England

This Day in History: 28 September 2020

 

28 September 1066

 

954 years ago, today, William the Conqueror invaded England in an attempt to claim his right to the English throne. His subsequent defeat of King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings marked the start of a new era in British history. It is believed that William visited England in 1051 and met with his cousin Edward the Confessor, the childless king. Supposedly, Edward promised to make William his heir. However, on Edward's deathbed, he granted the kingdom to Harold Godwinson, the head of a leading noble family in England, that was more powerful than the King himself. He was proclaimed as King Harold II in January 1066, which William immediately disputed.

 

With around 7,000 troops and cavalry, William marched to Hastings with King Harald III of Norway, who had designs on England. In October, Harold arrived near Hastings with his own army, before the battle began the next day. At the end of the bloody, long-lasting fight, King Harold II was killed, shot in the eye with an arrow according to legend, and his forces were defeated. William the Conqueror was crowned as the first Norman king of England on Christmas Day, ending the Anglo-Saxon phase of English history. William proved to be an effective king, creating the Domesday Book as his biggest achievement.

 

Want to find out more about William the Conqueror? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Battle of Hastings.

September 27 - The Tripartite Pact

This Day in History: 27 September 2020

 

27 September 1940

 

80 years ago, today, the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin between Germany, Italy, and Japan, officially forming the Axis powers. The Pact would provide for mutual assistance should any of the signatories suffer attack by any nation not already involved in the Second World War. This formalising of an alliance was aimed directly at the 'neutral' America, as it was designed to force them to think twice before drifting towards the side of the Allies. Additionally, the Pact recognised the two spheres of influence. Japan officially acknowledged 'the leadership of Germany and Italy in the establishment of a new order in Europe' while Japan was granted lordship over 'Greater East Asia'.

 

The pact was later joined by Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Croatia, as well as some countries under Japanese control. Yugoslavia's accession initiated a coup d'état in Belgrade two days later, which Germany, Italy and Hungary responded with by invading. Those countries that signed the pact agreed to give ten years of political, economic and military help to each other. However, in 1943, the pact began to fall apart. Many countries had ended their role in the war or joined the Allies. Although the Pact remained in effect until Japan's surrender in August 1945, Germany's surrender three months prior rendered the pact meaningless.

 

Want to find out more about the Tripartite Pact? Click here for more information, or here to view the text of the Pact.

September 26 - Sir Francis Drake's Circumnavigation of the Globe

This Day in History: 26 September 2020 

 

26 September 1580 

 

440 years ago, today, Francis Drake finished his circumnavigation of the globe when he returned to Plymouth, becoming the first British navigator to sail the earth. He had set out from England three years prior, on a mission to raid Spanish holdings on the Pacific coast of the New World. After crossing the Atlantic, Drake abandoned two of his ships in South America and sailed into the Straits of Magellan with the remaining three. Storms wrecked one of these ships and forced another back to England. Only the 'Golden Hind' reached the Pacific Ocean, but Drake continued unphased as he raided the Spanish settlements and captured a rich Spanish treasure ship. 

 

Reaching as far north as present-day Washington before turning back, Drake paused near San Francisco Bay in June 1579 to repair his ship. He called the land 'Nova Albion' and claimed the territory for Queen Elizabeth. In July, the expedition visited several islands across the Pacific before rounding Africa's Cape of Good Hope and returning to the Atlantic Ocean. Drake returned to Plymouth bearing rich captured treasures and valuable information about the world's oceans. Queen Elizabeth I knighted Drake in 1581 during a visit to his ship. He later played a crucial role in the defeat of the Spanish Armada. The great explorer and the most renowned of the Elizabethan seamen died in 1596 at the age of 56. 

 

Want to find out more about the life of Francis Drake? Click here for more information, or here for more about if he was a pirate or hero. 

September 25 - The IRA Officially Disarms

This Day in History: 25 September 2020

 

25 September 2005

 

15 years ago, today, the IRA officially disarmed. The removal of the group's substantial arsenal took place in secret locations in the Republic of Ireland. One Protestant and one Catholic priest, as well as officials from Finland and the United States, served as witnesses for the event. In their supply, automatic weapons, ammunition, missiles and explosives were found. Although many Northern Irish Protestants did not believe that the IRA was actually giving up all of its weapons, the disarmament represented an important step towards peace in the region. After the demilitarisation, IRA splinter groups did, however, threaten to continue the violence.

 

The IRA was originally founded in 1919 to militarily oppose British rule in Ireland. Since the 1960s, the group had operated as the military arm of Sinn Fein, the Irish nationalist party. For more than 30 years, the IRA had used terrorist tactics and assassinations to free Northern Ireland from British rule. In April 1998, a peace accord called the Good Friday Agreement was finally signed. This agreement included power-sharing among both Catholics and Protestants in government, a commitment to peace and democracy, and a pledge by paramilitary groups to decommission weapons within two years. The IRA initially refused, despite the fact a ceasefire had been put in place since 1997. This led to the peace process being stalled for almost six years.

 

Want to find out more about the IRA? Click here for more information, or here for a video that explains more about them.

September 24 - The Trial for the Chicago Eight Opens

This Day in History: 24 September 2020

 

24 September 1969

 

51 years ago, today, the trial for the Chicago Eight opened. They were charged with initiating violent demonstrations at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Initially, there were eight defendants, one of whom being Bobby Seale of the Black Panthers, who accused Judge Julius Hoffman of being a racist and demanded a separate trial. The seven other defendants did whatever they could to disrupt the trial through acts such as reading poetry and chanting Hare Krishna. While the jury was considering their verdict, Judge Hoffman held the defendants in contempt of the court for their behaviour. They were sentenced to up to 29 months in jail.

 

At the height of anti-war and civil rights movements, the Chicago Eight had organised protest marches and rock concerts at the Democratic National Convention. Clashes broke out between the protestors and police which escalated into full-scale rioting. The Chicago Eight were indicted for violating the Rap Brown Law, which made it illegal to cross state lines in order to riot. In 1970, the contempt charges were overturned on appeal on the basis that the judge was biased in his cultural and racial views. Before a different judge, some of the group were found guilty of a few charges but did not sentence any of them to jail or fines.

 

Want to find out more about the Chicago Eight? Click here for more information, or here for more about their trial.

September 23 - The Discovery of Neptune

This Day in History: 23 September 2020

 

23 September 1846

174 years ago, today, the planet Neptune was discovered by German astronomer Johann Gotfried Galle at the Berlin Observatory. The planet was mathematically predicted before it was directly observed by Urbain Le Verrier. Galle's telescopic observations confirmed the existence of the major planet using Le Verrier's calculations. It was a sensational moment for 19^th century science. After it was discovered, it turned out that Neptune had been observed many times in the past but not recognised. The discovery of Neptune also led to the discovery of its moon Triton by William Lassell just seventeen days later.

Neptune, the blue and densest gas giant, has a diameter four times that of Earth, and was named after the Roman god of the sea. It is known to have eight moons, of which Triton is the largest, and a ring system containing three bright and two dimmer rings. Every 165 years, it completes an orbit of the sun, and is the farthest known Solar planet away from it. In 1989, the US spacecraft 'Voyager 2' was the first human spacecraft to visit Neptune, which spotted that the planet's southern hemisphere had a Great Dark Spot like Jupiter's Great Red Spot.

Want to find out more about the discovery of Neptune? Click here for more information, or here for more about Neptune.

September 22 - The Iran-Iraq War Begins

This Day in History: 22 September 2020

 

22 September 1980

 

40 years ago, today, the Iran-Iraq War began when long-standing border disputes and political turmoil in Iran prompted Iraqi President Saddam Hussein to launch an invasion against Iran's oil-producing province of Khuzestan. They primarily wished to cripple Iran and prevent the 1979 Iranian Revolution from moving to Iraq and threaten the Iraqi leadership. They also wanted to replace Iran as the dominant state in the Persian Gulf, which had not previously been possible due to Iran's high economic and military status, as well as its close alliances with the United States and Israel.

 

After initial advances, the Iraqi offense was repulsed, and they withdrew, seeking a peace agreement. However, the Ayatollah Khomeini renewed fighting. Stalemates and the deaths of thousands of young Iranian conscripts followed. Population centres in both countries were also bombed, and Iraq employed many chemical weapons. In the Persian Gulf, a 'tanker war' decreased shipping and increased oil prices. A cease-fire was agreed by Iraq in 1988, ending the eight-year war. The conflict has often been compared to World War One in terms of tactics used, which includes trench warfare and human wave attacks. It is estimated that 500,000 Iraqi and Iranian soldiers died, in addition to a smaller number of civilians. The end of the war did not result in reparations or border changes.

 

Want to find out more about the Iran-Iraq War? Click here for more information, or here for an animated video explaining the war.

September 21 - The Abolition of the French Monarchy

This Day in History: 21 September 2020

 

21 September 1792

 

228 years ago, today, the Legislative Assembly in Revolutionary France voted to abolish the monarchy and establish the First Republic. This measure came one year after King Louis XVI reluctantly approved a new constitution that stripped him of much of his power. The National Convention of France, who had announced the abolition, had been instructed to put an end to the crisis that had broken out since the flight to Varennes of Louis XVI in June 1791 and the capture of the Tuileries in August 1792. Their middle-class origin and political activity meant that they held no sympathy for the monarchy. The revolution's first military success at the Battle of Valmy confirmed their convictions.

 

Louis had ascended to the French throne in 1774 and was predisposed to be unsuited to deal with the country's financial problems. In 1789, food shortages and economic crises led to the outbreak of the French Revolution. Louis and his queen, Mary-Antoinette, were both imprisoned, allowing the monarchy to be abolished. Soon after, evidence of Louis' counterrevolutionary interests with other nations were discovered, and he was put on trial for treason. He was condemned to death by guillotine in January 1793. His wife would meet the same fate nine months later.

 

Want to find out more about the abolition of the French monarchy? Click here for more information, or here for more about the French Revolution.

September 20 - The Battle of the Alma

This Day in History: 20 September 2020

 

20 September 1854

 

166 years ago, today, the Battle of the Alma was fought during the Crimean War, between an allied group of French, British and Egyptian forces and defending Russian forces. Almost a week prior the battle, the allies had made a surprise landing in Crimea, then marched towards the strategically important city of Sevastopol. Afterwards, they made a series of disjoined attacks, and eventually, British rifle fire forced the Russians to retreat. Their position collapsed and they fled once they realised that both flanks had been turned. Little pursuit occurred due to lack of cavalry. Roughly, the battle cost 1,600 French causalities, 2,000 British, 503 Egyptian, and the Russians 5,000.

 

The Crimean War, that began in October 1853, was a complex conflict that had its roots in the continuing decline of the Ottoman Empire, that had become known as the 'sick man of Europe'. The alliance of France, Britain and the Ottomans fought against Russia as they did not want them to gain land from the fallen empire. After the Battle of the Alma, the Russians commenced a counterattack at the Battle of Balaclava, where the famous Charge of the Light Brigade took place. Ultimately, the Russians admitted defeat in Crimea. However, the war served as the catalyst for them to start reform in their military and society to keep pace with other developing European nations.

 

Want to find out more about the Battle of the Alma? Click here for more information, or here a video with more about the Crimean War.

September 19 - New Zealand Grant Women the Vote

This Day in History: 19 September 2020

 

19 September 1893

 

127 years ago, today, New Zealand became the first country in the world to allow the national voting rights of women. The fight in New Zealand was won through a combination of persistence, the temperance movement and a degree of luck. The movement had come to prominence in the 1880s, and blamed alcohol for many of society's problems with women and children receiving the main responsibility. Kate Sheppard became New Zealand's leading suffragette, as she organised many petitions demanding women the vote and spoke around the country. The English philosopher John Stuart Mill was another major influence, as he advocated for rights for women.

An earlier bill to parliament had failed in the upper house but was passed despite Prime Minister Richard Seddon's attempts to stop it. His interreference bothered two members of parliament so much that they changed their vote and the bill was passed. 84% of women registered for the next general election occurring over two months later. Today, Kate Sheppard's portrait is on the New Zealand ten-dollar bill, and the centenary of her efforts was widely celebrated in 1993. In 1917, Canada followed in granting women the vote, before the United Kingdom in 1918 and the United States in 1920.

Want to find out more about the women's vote in New Zealand? Click here for more information, or here for more about Kate Sheppard.

September 18 - Fidel Castro Arrives in New York

This Day in History: 18 September 2020

 

18 September 1960

 

60 years ago, today, Fidel Castro arrived in New York, acting as the head of the Cuban delegation to the United Nations. His visit stirred admiration and indignation from various groups within the American society. Castro's stay at the Theresa Hotel in Harlem was the first event that sparked public surprise, which eventually climaxed due to his speech to the United Nations on September 26. While staying at the hotel, he met with many African American leaders, including Malcolm X and Langston Hughes. Over a week later, he would deliver an attack on American 'aggression' and 'imperialism' in front of the United Nations, that lasted for over four hours.

 

Castro's visit marked the final breaking point in relations between the United States and Cuba. The next year, the Eisenhower administration severed all diplomatic relations with Cuba, and shortly afterwards, President John F. Kennedy ordered the Bay of Pigs invasion, which was ultimately a failure. Castro's power in Cuba was solidified by his victory in the invasion. For over four decades, he remained the undisputed leader of Cuba's communist government, despite continued strained relations between the United States. Castro officially stepped down in February 2008, and died in 2016, at the age of 90.

 

Want to find out more about Fidel Castro's visit to the UN? Click here for more information, or here for more about his life.

September 17 - King Charles VI of France Expels the Jews

This Day in History: 17 September 2020

 

17 September 1394

 

626 years ago, today, King Charles VI of France ordered all the Jews to be expelled from the kingdom. This order outlived the monarchy and still remains as one of the major contributing factors to the miniscule Jewish population in France. The country had been home to Jews since ancient times, but they had still faced frequent discrimination and persecution. In France, their religious texts were burnt, prejudiced taxes were imposed upon them, and they were scapegoated for the Black Plague. Throughout the past decades, various French cities independently expelled the Jews, but it was not until 1306 and 1394 that the country formally called for them to leave.

 

France did not experience a major Jewish population until the 1700s, when Jews arrived in Alsace and Lorraine while fleeing violence and discrimination. By the eve of the French Revolution, the Jewish population in France was near 40,000. The newly 'enlightened' governments that were in place during the turbulent years after 1789 attempted to gradually restore the Jews' rights to live in France. However, they continued to face discrimination and their numbers around the world and in France were decimated due to the Nazi occupation of France and other nations. Today, roughly one percent of France is Jewish.

 

Want to find out more about the French expulsion of Jews in the 14^th century? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Nazi occupation of France.

September 16 - The First Peacetime Draft in the United States

This Day in History: 16 September 2020

 

16 September 1940

 

80 years ago, today, the Burke-Wadsworth Act was passed by Congress, marking it as the first peacetime draft in the United States. Exactly one month later, the registration of men between the ages of 21 and 36 began. This occurred as Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson, began drawing draft numbers out of a glass bowl. Stimson had been a key player in moving the Roosevelt administration away from a foreign policy of strict neutrality. There were around 20 million eligible men, but 50% were rejected in the first year for health reasons or illiteracy.

 

Two years later, when the United States was now participating in the war, the draft ages expanded from 18 to 37. African-Americans were passed over for the draft due to racist assumptions about their abilities and the viability of a mixed-race army. In 1943, this changed when a 'quota', meant to limit the number of black people drafted, was imposed. Initially black people were restricted to 'labour units', but as the war progressed, this ended, and they were finally used in combat. Around 5,000-6,000 men were imprisoned for failing to register to serve their nation, and these were comprised mostly of Jehovah's Witnesses. By the end of the war, around 34 million men had registered, with 10 million serving in the military.

 

Want to find out more about the United States draft? Click here for more information, or here for more about Henry L. Stimson.

September 15 - The Nuremberg Race Laws Are Imposed in Nazi Germany

This Day in History: 15 September 2020

 

15 September 1935

 

85 years ago, today, the Nuremberg race laws were imposed in Nazi Germany, stripping German Jews of their citizenship, thus reducing them to 'subjects' of the state. These laws became embedded in the German culture by government legislation, and so were much more radical than other Jewish discriminatory practises that were already in place. Jews were forbidden to marry 'Aryans' or engage in extramarital relations with them. Female Aryan servants under the age of 35 could also not be employed by a Jew. Buying food was now difficult for Jewish customers, as groceries, bakeries and dairies would not admit them.

 

Within the first year of Hitler's dictatorship, German Jews were already excluded from a range of offices and locations, such as journalism, radio, theatre and film. 'Jews Not Welcome' signs were also frequently seen on shop and hotel windows, as well as other public arenas. Although the Nuremberg Laws had a crippling economic and social impact on the Jewish community, the average German felt renewed hope and pride in their economy. Even most foreign and political leaders were tricked into thinking this was merely just a phase, and that Hitler, in the words of British Prime Minister Lloyd George, was a 'great man'.

 

Want to find out more about the Nuremberg Laws? Click here for more information, or here for more about the life of Jews in pre-war Germany.

September 14 - John Steinbeck Receives the Medal of Freedom

This Day in History: 14 September 2020

 

14 September 1964

 

56 years ago, today, writer John Steinbeck was awarded the Medal of Freedom. This award recognises people who have made special contributions to the security or national interests of the United States. He had already received numerous other honours and awards for his work in writing, including the 1962 Nobel Prize in Literature and a Pulitzer Prize in 1939 for 'Grapes of Wrath'. Given this award by President Lyndon B. Johnson, he remarked that Steinbeck was a writer of "worldwide influence", as he had "helped America to understand herself by finding universal themes in the experience of men and women everywhere".

Steinbeck had studied writing at Stanford between 1920 and 1925 but never graduated. He later moved to New York and became a manual labourer and journalist as he wrote his first two novels, which were not well-received. His next works, 'In Dubious Battle' and 'Of Mice and Men' were both very successful, however, and in 1938, his masterpiece 'The Grapes of Wrath' was published. After the Second World War, Steinbeck's work became more sentimental, and he also began to write many successful films, such as 'Forgotten Village'. In 1968, after winning the Nobel Prize six years earlier, Steinbeck died in New York of heart disease and congestive heart failure.

Want to find out more about the life and death of John Steinbeck? Click here for more information, or here for more about the history of the Medal of Freedom.

September 13 - The First Oslo Accord is Signed

This Day in History: 13 September 2020

 

13 September 1993

 

27 years ago, today, the Oslo Accords were officially signed at a public ceremony in Washington, D.C., between the PLO chairman, Yasser Arafat, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and American President Bill Clinton. The accord provided for the creation of a Palestinian interim self-government and decided that this would have responsibility for the administration of territory under its control. With the signing, the Israel Defence Forces were forced to withdraw from parts of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. The PLO also acknowledged the State of Israel and pledged to reject violence, while Israel likewise recognised the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people.

This agreement was historic as the Jews and the Arabs in Palestine had been constantly fighting for many decades before the accords. However, matters began to improve once Yasser Arafat had recognised the State of Israel's right to exist in 1988, thus authorising the beginning of 'land-for-peace' negotiations with Israel. Although Israel initially refused to open direct talks with the PLO, newly elected Israeli leader Yitzhak Rabin vowed to move quickly on the peace process. He froze new Israeli settlements in the occupied territories and later authorised secret negotiations between Israel and the PLO. Even though the second Oslo Accord was signed in 1995, neither accord promised Palestinian statehood, and the peace process was stalled once right-wing Benjamin Netanyahu was elected prime minister.

Want to find out more about the Oslo Accords? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about the Arab-Israeli conflict.

September 12 - Marriage of John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Bouvier

This Day in History: 12 September 2020

 

12 September 1953

 

67 years ago, today, Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy, the future president, married Jacqueline Bouvier in St Mary's Church in Newport, Rhode Island. Seven years later, the two would become the youngest president and first lady in American history. Jackie wore an ivory silk gown that had been made by Ann Lowe, an African-American designer. Around 750 guests attended the Catholic mass, and an additional 450 people joined the wedding reception held at Hammersmith Farm. The couple danced to the Meyer David Orchestra's version of 'I Married An Angel'. David had also performed at Jackie's parents' wedding and at Kennedy's inaugural ball.

Jackie was born into a prominent family in 1929 and grew up as a horsewoman and reader. In 1951, after graduating from George Washington University, she took a tour of Europe, before she began her first job as the 'inquiring camera girl' for the Washington Times-Herald. Soon afterwards, she met John Kennedy at a dinner party in Georgetown. They began to date for the next two years, during which Jackie feared she would marry a man allergic to horses, something she never thought to consider. In 1953, the two were engaged when Kennedy gave Jackie a diamond-and-emerald ring from Van Cleef and Arpels.

Want to find out more about the marriage of John and Jackie? Click here for more information, or here for more about the life of Jaqueline.

September 11 - The Attack on America

This Day in History: 11 September 2020

 

11 September 2001

 

19 years ago, today, the Attack on America, also known as 9/11, occurred when two American Airliners crashed into the north and south towers of the World Trade Centre in New York City. The collisions caused massive explosions that showered burning debris over surrounding buildings and the streets below. Hundreds of people were instantly killed and hundreds more were trapped in the building's higher floors. At first, it seemed like a freak accident, but when the second plane hit, it was clear that the attackers were Islamic terrorists, reportedly financed by al Qaeda.

 

The terrorists were reportedly acting in retaliation for America's support of Israel, its involvement in the Persian Gulf War, and its continued military presence in the Middle East. After the attack was over, it was revealed that only six people in the World Trade Centre towers at the time of collapse survived. 10,000 other people were treated for injuries, and close to 3,000 people died. In order to oust the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and destroy Osama bin Ladin's terrorist network there, Operation Enduring Freedom was launched in October. Ten years later, bin Laden was killed during a raid of his compound in Pakistan by US forces.

 

Want to find out more about the 9/11 attacks? Click here for more information, or here for more about how the attacks changed America.

September 10 - Last Execution by Guillotine

This Day in History: 10 September 2020

 

10 September 1977

 

43 years, ago, Hamida Djandoubi became the last person executed by the guillotine. He was a Tunisian agricultural worker and was convicted of murder. After moving to Marseille, France, he kidnapped, tortured and murdered his former girlfriend, Élisabeth Bousquet. One month later, he kidnapped another girl who was able to escape and report him to the police. Even though he was the last person executed in France, he was not the last condemned. After capital punishment was abolished in France in 1981, following the election of François Mitterrand, no more executions occurred. Those sentenced to death had their sentences replaced.

 

During the French Revolution, the guillotine first gained fame. Supporters of the machine viewed the devices as more humane than other execution techniques, such as hanging and use of the firing squad. In 1792, a French decapitating machine was built and tested on cadavers, before the first person in Revolutionary France was executed using this method. More than 10,000 people lost their heads by guillotine in this period, including Louis XVI and Mary Antoinette, the former king and queen of France. However, use of the guillotine continued in France in the 19^th and 20^th centuries.

 

Want to find out more about the guillotine? Click here for more information, or here for more about the last execution.

September 9 - The Death of Mao Zedong

This Day in History: 9 September 2020

 

9 September 1976

 

44 years ago, today, Mao Zedong died. He had led the Chinese people through a long revolution and ruled the nation's communist party from its establishment in 1949. The leader's health had declined in his last years, most likely aggravated by his heavy chain-smoking. During his later years, it became a state secret that he suffered from multiple lung and heart problems. There are unconfirmed reports that he had Parkinson's disease, as well as Lou Gehrig's disease. Mao's body was embalmed, and one million Chinese paid their final respects by crying. More than a week later, his body was taken in a minibus to a hospital, where his internal organs were preserved in formaldehyde.

 

Mao's early days as a communist had not been easy, as he constantly feared arrest and execution by Chinese government forces. However, in 1935, he was able to take control of the Chinese Communist Party, which won the Chinese Civil War. Throughout his rule, he was invested in reinvigorating the nation with the Cultural Revolution in the mid-1960s. Thousands of Chinese were killed or imprisoned by Mao's young supporters, named the Red Guards. Meanwhile, Mao was seeking closer relations with the Americans than the Soviet Union, as he hoped to use them as allies in his battles against the Soviets, taking a dramatic turn in the Cold War.

 

Want to find out more about the life of Mao Zedong? Click here for more information, or here for a video about China's Cultural Revolution.

September 8 - Michelangelo's 'David' is Unveiled

This Day in History: 8 September 2020 

 

8 September 1504 

 

516 years ago, today, Bounarroti Michelangelo's 'David' masterpiece was unveiled to the public in Florence. Afterwards, a committee including Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli decided that the statue should be placed in a more public location. The lifting of more than 6 tons of marble onto the roof added another set of complications. Once it was decided that it would reside in the Piazza della Signoria, it took 40 men four days to move the statue half a mile. After almost 400 years, in 1873, 'David' was moved indoors to the Galleria dell'Accademia to protect it from damage.  

 

The massive statue depicts a nude David, the Biblical hero who used a slingshot to slay the giant Goliath. Rejected by other artists for being flawed, Michelangelo carved it from a single block of white Italian Carrara marble. Three years before it's unveiling, the work was commissioned by the Opera del Duomo for the Cathedral of Florence. It was set to be part of a series of other statues to be located along the roofline of the cathedral. While most depictions of David feature a boy, Michelangelo's version was a muscular man. The statue is widely considered as one of the finest examples of High Renaissance art. 

 

Want to find out more about the 'David' statue? Click here for more information, or here for a video about the statue. 

September 7 - The Blitz Begins

This Day in History: 7 September 2020

 

7 September 1940

 

80 years ago, today, the Blitz began as 300 German bombers raided London. This would continue until May 1941. After Germany's successful occupation of France, it was only a matter of time before they set their sights to England. Hitler wanted Britain to be submissive and neutralised so that he could concentrate on the East, more specifically, the invasion of the Soviet Union. Since June, England and Germany had been fighting in aerial battles, in an attempt from Germany to wear down the Royal Air Force. However, this was failing, so instead of perusing an unrealistic land invasion, he instead chose terror as his weapon.

 

By the end of the first day of the Blitz, 337 tons of bombs had been dropped by German planes on London. Even though civilians were not the primary target that day, the poorest area of London, the East, felt the fallout heavily, as they faced direct hits from bombs and fires that broke out and quickly spread. That afternoon and evening, 448 civilians were killed. A state of emergency was declared in England once British military units were alerted that the invasion had begun, and home defence units were put to the ready. A key strategy of Hitler's was to underestimate the will and courage of the British people, but instead they did not run or submit to his tyranny and fought hard.

 

Want to find out more about the Blitz? Click here for more information, or here for a video about life during the Blitz.

September 6 - The First Tank is Produced

This Day in History: 6 September 2020

 

6 September 1915

 

105 years ago, today, the first tank, nicknamed 'Little Willie' was produced. Initially, it weighed 14 tons, got frequently stuck in trenches and crawled over rough terrain at only two miles an hour. However, tanks eventually transformed military battlefields as improvements were made to the original prototype. A second prototype, Big Willie, was produced after Little Willie's underwhelming performance. By 1916, this vehicle was deemed ready for battle and made its debut at the First Battle of the Somme. The first batch of tanks was hot, noisy and suffered malfunctions on the battlefield, but people realised the tank's potential.

 

The British developed the tank in response to the trench warfare of World War One. The idea of an armoured vehicle with conveyer-belt-like tracks over wheels was championed by two men named Ernest Swinton and William Hankey. They appealed to Winston Churchill, the navy minister, resulting in a Landships Committee begin organised to start developing a prototype. In order to keep the project secret from enemies, production workers were told the vehicles they were building would carry water on the battlefield. Tanks rapidly became an important military weapon and played a prominent role during World War Two.

 

Want to find out more about Little Willie? Click here for more information, or here for a video about how useless Little Willie was.

September 5 - The Munich Olympics Massacre

This Day in History: 5 September 2020

 

5 September 1972

 

48 years ago, today, the Munich Olympics massacre began, when a group of Palestinian terrorists stormed the Olympic Village apartment of Israeli athletes. Two were killed, and nine others were taken hostage. The terrorists were part of a group known as Black September. In return for the release of the hostages, they demanded that Israel release over 230 Arabs being held in Israeli jails, as well as two German terrorists. At Munich airport, the nine Israeli hostages were killed along with five terrorists in a shootout. Olympic competition was suspended for 24 hours in memorial for the athletes.

 

At the main Munich Olympic stadium, after the memorial service was held, it was ordered that the games continue by the International Olympic Committee President Avery Brundage, in order to show that the terrorists had not won. Even though the tragedy deeply scarred the games, there were still many moments of great athletic achievement. This included American swimmer Mark Spitz's seven gold medals. In the aftermath of the murders and Olympics, the Israeli government, led by Golda Meir, hired a group of Mossad agents to track down and kill the Black September terrorists.

 

Want to find out more about the Munich Olympics massacre? Click here for more information, or watch the 2005 Stephen Spielberg film 'Munich', which was based on these events.

September 4 - Announcement of Ho Chi Minh's Death

This Day in History: 4 September 2020 

 

4 September 1969 

 

51 years ago, today, the Vietnamese Radio Hanoi announced the death of Ho Chi Minh, who had died two days earlier. He suffered from heart failure at his home in Hanoi, and his body was later embalmed. They proclaimed that the National Liberation Front would halt military operations in the South for three days in mourning for Ho. He had been the spiritual leader for the communists in the Vietnam War since the earliest days of the struggle against France. The Chinese leaders assured the North Vietnamese of their continued support in the war against the United States, which was essential if the North Vietnamese wished to continue the war. 

 

Many in the United States hoped that the death of Ho would provide a new opportunity to achieve a negotiated settlement to the war in Vietnam, but this did not occur. The war would not end until 1975, when communist forces seized control of South Vietnam, and the county was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam the next year. More than 3 million people were killed in the war, and more than half of the dead were Vietnamese citizens. The effects of the war in the United States lingered long after the last troops had returned home. More than $120 billion was spent on the conflict. This led to widespread inflation, which was worsened by a worldwide oil crisis in 1973. The myth of American invincibility was also dashed, and the nation was left divided. 

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Ho Chi Minh? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Vietnam War. 

September 3 - Britain and France Declare War on Germany

This Day in History: 3 September 2020

 

3 September 1939

 

81 years ago, today, Britain and France declared war on Germany after Hitler's German forces invaded Poland. Britain's response was initially no more than the dropping of 13 tons of anti-Nazi propaganda leaflets over Germany. The next day, however, they would begin to bomb German ships, suffering significant losses, but were working under orders simultaneously to not harm German civilians. The German military had no such restrictions. Two weeks later, France would begin an offensive against Germany's western border, but was weakened by a narrow window, enclosed by the borders of Luxembourg and Belgium. The Germans mined the passage and stalled the French offensive.

 

The first causality of Britain and France's declaration was not German, but instead the British ocean liner 'Athenia'. The ship was sunk by a German U-30 submarine that had assumed the liner was armed and hostile. There were more than 1,100 passengers on board, 112 of whom lost their lives, and 28 of those were American. However, President Roosevelt remained unfazed by the tragedy, dashing German fears that the US might join the war on the side of Britain and France. An admission of responsibility did not come from German authorities until 1946.

 

Want to find out more about Britain and France's declaration of war? Click here for more information, or here for more about the sinking of 'Athenia'.