This Week in Women's Rights - 'A Bunny's Tale'

This Week's Historical Theme: Women's Rights

 

1 May 1963

A significant event throughout the history of women's rights that occurred in May was Gloria Steinem's publication of "A Bunny's Tale". After her brief but shocking time undercover as a Bunny in Manhattan's Playboy Club, feminist writer, Gloria Steinem published the first half of her landmark account, "A Bunny's Tale", in SHOW magazine on 1 May 1963. Steinem was commissioned by SHOW to apply for a job at the Playboy Club under a fake name and document her experience. The servers at the clubs were known as "Bunnies" and were made to wear a highly sexualised bunny uniform trademark of the Playboy brand. Her brilliant exposé stripped back the glamorous facade of Hugh Hefner's Playboy empire at the height of its influence, revealing the strife misogyny and exploitation of young women.

Steinem quickly learned the truth was far removed from the glamorous way in which it was depicted. Bunnies were paid far less than the advertised $200-$300 per week, the club took 50% of the first $30 they made in tips, and they had to comply to a harsh system of demerits which amounted to salary reduction. These demerits could be given for offenses such as refusing to go out with a customer in a rude way, or allowing the cotton tail on the back of their uniforms to get dirty. The Bunnies were also subject to constant harassment by the clientele and in some accounts, were pressured into going out with "Number One keyholders" who were exclusive members of the club. Though Hefner tried to take the exposé in his stride, claiming applications to work the Playboy Club had increased after its publication, it was merely the first of many feminist attacks on the male-centric Playboy lifestyle that exploited and objectified women.

Want to find out more about Gloria Steinem's exposé? Click here for more information, or here for more about feminism in the 60s and 70s.

This Week in Space Exploration - Vladimir Komarov's Death

This Week's Historical Theme: Space Exploration

 

24 April 1967

A significant event throughout the history of space exploration that occurred in April was the death of Soviet cosmonaut, test pilot and aerospace engineer, Colonel Vladimir Komarov. Komarov was testing the spacecraft Soyuz 1 during the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. After 24 hours and 16 orbits of the earth, Komarov was scheduled to re-enter the atmosphere, but ran into difficulty handling the vessel. It took 2 more orbits around the earth before he could manage re-entry. When Soyuz 1 reached an altitude of 23,000 feet, a parachute was supposed to deploy and bring Komarov safely to earth. However, the lines of the chute had gotten tangled during the re-entry difficulties and there was no back up chute. Komarov plunged to the ground at 144km/h and was killed on impact. This was the first fatality of a space flight.

There was a vast public morning of Vladimir Komarov in Moscow and his ashes were buried in the walls of the Kremlin. Komarov's wife, Valentina, had not been told about the launch of Soyuz 1 until after Komarov was already in orbit and thus didn't get a chance to say goodbye to her husband. Earlier in 1967, the US experienced its own space related tragedy where 3 NASA astronauts in the Apollo program (Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chafee) were killed in a fire during tests on the ground. Despite the dangers, the US and the Soviet Union continued their space exploration program and 2 years later in 1969 the US landed the first man on the moon.

Want to find out more about Soyuz 1? Click here for more information, or here for more about the space race.

This Week in Climate Change - The Clean Air Act

This Week's Historical Theme: Climate Change

 

17 December 1963

 

A significant event throughout the history of climate change that occurred in December was the Clean Air Act, passed by President Lyndon B. Johnson. This was one of the first major pieces of environmental legislation in the United States, which empowered federal and state agencies to research and regulate air pollution. This marked a major expansion of government efforts to fight back against the damage being done to the climate. Before this, in 1955, the Air Pollution Control Act had allocated $15 million to the study of air pollution across the country. The research conducted revealed that further legislation would be needed.

 

The landmark act, as well as its subsequent amendments, comprised of some of the most comprehensive air-quality legislation in the world. Shortly after its creation in 1970, the Environmental Protection Agency began using its powers under the Clean Air Act to set quality standards for areas that had been affected by air pollution. It has subsequently been invoked to ban specific harmful chemicals and tackle specific environmental issues, like acid rain. Even though there is a long way to go, national emissions after the act dropped 63%, despite overall economic growth and an increase in the number of miles driven.

 

Want to find out more about the Clean Air Acts? Click here for more information, or here for more about the history of climate change.

November 6 - UN Condemns Apartheid in South Africa

This Day in History: 6 November 2020

 

6 November 1962

 

58 years ago, today, the UN condemned apartheid in South Africa, calling on all its members to end economic and military relations with the nation. In 1960, a massacre of unarmed demonstrators at Sharpeville near Johannesburg occurred where 69 Black people were killed and over 180 were injured. The international movement to end apartheid gained wide support, but few Western powers or South Africa's other main trading partners favoured a full economic or military embargo against the country. Nevertheless, opposition to apartheid within the UN grew, and the UN resolution in 1973 labelled apartheid as a "crime against humanity." The country was suspended from the General Assembly in 1974.

 

This government-sanctioned racial segregation and political discrimination against South Africa's non-white majority was enforced from 1948 to 1993. The black South Africans were forced to live in segregated areas and could not enter white-only neighbourhoods unless they had a special pass. Although white South Africans represented only a small fraction of the population, they held the vast majority of the country's land and wealth. In 1990, after decades of strikes, sanctions and demonstrations, many apartheid laws were repealed. The next year, the government repealed all remaining laws and began to write a new constitution. In 1993, the first free elections were held, electing political activist Nelson Mandela as South Africa's new president.

 

Want to find out more about the history of apartheid in South Africa? Click here for more information, or here for more about Nelson Mandela.

October 28 - The Cuban Missile Crisis Ends

This Day in History: 28 October 2020

 

28 October 1962

 

58 years ago, today, the Cuban Missile Crisis came to an end when Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove Russian missiles from Cuba, in exchange for an American promise to respect Cuba's territorial sovereignty. This agreement ended nearly two weeks of tension between the United States and the Soviet Union that was close to provoking a nuclear conflict. The crisis was initiated in response to the failed Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961, and the discovery of American missiles in Italy and Turkey, when Khrushchev placed nuclear missiles in Cuba to prevent a future invasion. A naval blockade was ordered by President Kennedy to prevent further missiles from entering Cuba in retaliation.

 

The consequences of the crisis varied. Relations between the communist nations of Cuba and the Soviet Union were insecure for some time after Khrushchev removed the missiles, as Fidel Castro, the Cuban leader, accused him of deserting the Cuban revolution. European allies of the United States were also angered, but not due to the American stance, but because Kennedy's administration kept them virtually in the dark about ongoing negotiations that may have led to a devastating nuclear war. Inside the Soviet Union, hard-liners were disgusted by Khrushchev's withdrawal of weapons. He was removed from power two years later.

 

Want to find out more about the Cuban Missile Crisis? Click here for more information, or here for an animated video about the crisis.

October 22 - The Highway Beautification Act is Signed

This Day in History: 22 October 2020

 

22 October 1965

 

55 years ago, today, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Highway Beautification Act, attempting to limit billboards and other forms of outdoor advertising along America's motorways. The act also encouraged 'scenic enhancement' by restricting junkyards and other unsightly roadside messes. It funded local efforts to clean up and landscape the green space on either side of the roadways, as well. However, the act was actually the pet project of the first lady, Lady Bird Johnson. She believed that beauty had social utility, so cleaning up city parks and removing ugly advertisements would make the nation a better place to look at and live in.

 

Many urban activists, along with many other people who were starting to think seriously about the consequences of the nation's poor environmental policies, supported the Johnsons' efforts. On the other hand, however, business groups, polluters and advertisers were not so excited. Lobbyists for the Outdoor Advertising Association of America were able to water down the bill significantly, as companies who had their billboards taken down were compensated massively. Nevertheless, the bill was very important, as it declared that nature was fragile and worth preserving, even just the strips along the country's motorways. This idea still holds great power today.

 

Want to find out more about the Highway Beautification Act? Click here for more information, or here for more about Lady Bird Johnson.

October 9 - Che Guevara is Executed

This Day in History: 9 October 2020

 

9 October 1967

 

53 years ago, today, Che Guevara, a socialist revolutionary and guerrilla leader, was executed by the Bolivian army. They had captured Guevara the day prior while battling his band of guerrillas in Bolivia. Guevara was shot nine times: five times in his legs, once in the right shoulder and arm, and once in the chest and throat. His hands were cut as a proof of his death and his body was buried in an unmarked grave. Ten years later, in 1997, his remains were found and sent back to Cuba, where they were reburied in a ceremony attended by President Fidel Castro and thousands of other Cubans.

 

In the mid 1950s, Guevara joined Fidel Castro and his group of exiled revolutionaries in Mexico. With them, he played a key role in Castro's seizure of power and later served as his right-hand man and minister of industry. He strongly opposed US domination in Latin America and advocated peasant-based revolutionaries to combat social injustice in third world countries. Guevara resigned from his government post in April 1965, possibly due to differences with Castro, then disappeared from Cuba. After his death, he gained a status as a hero among people and became a symbol of anti-imperialism and revolution.

 

Want to find out more about Che Guevara? Click here for more information, or here for more about his life-changing motorbike trip.

October 2 - Thurgood Marshall Becomes First Black Supreme Court Justice

This Day in History: 2 October 2020

 

2 October 1967

 

53 years ago, today, Thurgood Marshall was sworn in as the first Black Supreme Court Justice. Through his role as chief counsel for the NAACP in the 1940s and 50s, Marshall was the architect and executor of the legal strategy that ended the era of official racial segregation. He argued more than a dozen cases before the US Supreme Court, challenging racial segregation, most notably and successfully in 1954's Brown v. Board of Education, where the Supreme Court ruled that segregation violated the equal rights clause in the 14^th Amendment. This served as a great milestone for the civil rights movement and ultimately led to the abolishment of segregation in all public places.

 

President John F. Kennedy appointed Marshall to the US Court of Appeals in 1961, but his nomination was opposed by many Southern senators. However, in 1965, President Lyndon Johnson appointed Marshall to be solicitor general of the United States, where he could argue cases again before the Supreme Court, but this time on behalf of the US government. Two years later, Johnson nominated Marshall to fill the seat of retiring Supreme Court Justice Tom Clark. During his 24 years on the high court, he consistently challenged discrimination based on race or sex, opposed the death penalty and demanded for action. He retired in 1991 due to his declining health and died in 1993.

 

Want to find out more about Thurgood Marshall? Click here for more information, or watch the 2017 biographical film 'Marshall' starring Chadwick Boseman to learn more.

September 24 - The Trial for the Chicago Eight Opens

This Day in History: 24 September 2020

 

24 September 1969

 

51 years ago, today, the trial for the Chicago Eight opened. They were charged with initiating violent demonstrations at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Initially, there were eight defendants, one of whom being Bobby Seale of the Black Panthers, who accused Judge Julius Hoffman of being a racist and demanded a separate trial. The seven other defendants did whatever they could to disrupt the trial through acts such as reading poetry and chanting Hare Krishna. While the jury was considering their verdict, Judge Hoffman held the defendants in contempt of the court for their behaviour. They were sentenced to up to 29 months in jail.

 

At the height of anti-war and civil rights movements, the Chicago Eight had organised protest marches and rock concerts at the Democratic National Convention. Clashes broke out between the protestors and police which escalated into full-scale rioting. The Chicago Eight were indicted for violating the Rap Brown Law, which made it illegal to cross state lines in order to riot. In 1970, the contempt charges were overturned on appeal on the basis that the judge was biased in his cultural and racial views. Before a different judge, some of the group were found guilty of a few charges but did not sentence any of them to jail or fines.

 

Want to find out more about the Chicago Eight? Click here for more information, or here for more about their trial.

September 18 - Fidel Castro Arrives in New York

This Day in History: 18 September 2020

 

18 September 1960

 

60 years ago, today, Fidel Castro arrived in New York, acting as the head of the Cuban delegation to the United Nations. His visit stirred admiration and indignation from various groups within the American society. Castro's stay at the Theresa Hotel in Harlem was the first event that sparked public surprise, which eventually climaxed due to his speech to the United Nations on September 26. While staying at the hotel, he met with many African American leaders, including Malcolm X and Langston Hughes. Over a week later, he would deliver an attack on American 'aggression' and 'imperialism' in front of the United Nations, that lasted for over four hours.

 

Castro's visit marked the final breaking point in relations between the United States and Cuba. The next year, the Eisenhower administration severed all diplomatic relations with Cuba, and shortly afterwards, President John F. Kennedy ordered the Bay of Pigs invasion, which was ultimately a failure. Castro's power in Cuba was solidified by his victory in the invasion. For over four decades, he remained the undisputed leader of Cuba's communist government, despite continued strained relations between the United States. Castro officially stepped down in February 2008, and died in 2016, at the age of 90.

 

Want to find out more about Fidel Castro's visit to the UN? Click here for more information, or here for more about his life.

September 14 - John Steinbeck Receives the Medal of Freedom

This Day in History: 14 September 2020

 

14 September 1964

 

56 years ago, today, writer John Steinbeck was awarded the Medal of Freedom. This award recognises people who have made special contributions to the security or national interests of the United States. He had already received numerous other honours and awards for his work in writing, including the 1962 Nobel Prize in Literature and a Pulitzer Prize in 1939 for 'Grapes of Wrath'. Given this award by President Lyndon B. Johnson, he remarked that Steinbeck was a writer of "worldwide influence", as he had "helped America to understand herself by finding universal themes in the experience of men and women everywhere".

Steinbeck had studied writing at Stanford between 1920 and 1925 but never graduated. He later moved to New York and became a manual labourer and journalist as he wrote his first two novels, which were not well-received. His next works, 'In Dubious Battle' and 'Of Mice and Men' were both very successful, however, and in 1938, his masterpiece 'The Grapes of Wrath' was published. After the Second World War, Steinbeck's work became more sentimental, and he also began to write many successful films, such as 'Forgotten Village'. In 1968, after winning the Nobel Prize six years earlier, Steinbeck died in New York of heart disease and congestive heart failure.

Want to find out more about the life and death of John Steinbeck? Click here for more information, or here for more about the history of the Medal of Freedom.

September 4 - Announcement of Ho Chi Minh's Death

This Day in History: 4 September 2020 

 

4 September 1969 

 

51 years ago, today, the Vietnamese Radio Hanoi announced the death of Ho Chi Minh, who had died two days earlier. He suffered from heart failure at his home in Hanoi, and his body was later embalmed. They proclaimed that the National Liberation Front would halt military operations in the South for three days in mourning for Ho. He had been the spiritual leader for the communists in the Vietnam War since the earliest days of the struggle against France. The Chinese leaders assured the North Vietnamese of their continued support in the war against the United States, which was essential if the North Vietnamese wished to continue the war. 

 

Many in the United States hoped that the death of Ho would provide a new opportunity to achieve a negotiated settlement to the war in Vietnam, but this did not occur. The war would not end until 1975, when communist forces seized control of South Vietnam, and the county was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam the next year. More than 3 million people were killed in the war, and more than half of the dead were Vietnamese citizens. The effects of the war in the United States lingered long after the last troops had returned home. More than $120 billion was spent on the conflict. This led to widespread inflation, which was worsened by a worldwide oil crisis in 1973. The myth of American invincibility was also dashed, and the nation was left divided. 

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Ho Chi Minh? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Vietnam War. 

July 23 - The Detroit Riots Begin

This Day in History: 23 July 2020

 

23 July 1967

 

53 years ago, today, the Detroit riots began, which were among the bloodiest in American history. The violence occurred during a period of Detroit's history when the city was struggling economically, with race relations nationwide also being at an all-time low. The Detroit Police Department's vice squad often raided illegal drinking establishments in the poorer neighbourhoods of the city, and in the early morning on this day, they moved against a club that was hosting a party for returning Vietnam War veterans. The police activity in the early hours drew a crowd of onlookers, causing the situation to rapidly deteriorate.

 

Thousands of people had quickly spilled out onto the street from nearby buildings. They began to throw rocks and bottles at the police, who rapidly fled the scene. On 12^th Street, where the illegal club was located, looting and ransacking of shops and businesses began. The first fire broke out by dawn, setting much of the street ablaze. A few hours later, every policeman and fireman in Detroit was called, but officers still struggled to control the crowd on 12^th Street. Firemen were also attacked as they tried to fight the flames. This riot continued throughout the week, and even the US Army and National Guard were called in. Once the violence had ended, around 43 people had died, many more were seriously injured and nearly 1,400 buildings had been burned or ransacked.

 

Want to find out more about the 1967 Detroit riots? Click here for more information, or here for how the riots reshaped Detroit.

Skateboarding

One of my favourite hobbies when I’m not locked in my study doing homework is going skateboarding. If you are one of my nearest and dearest and you are reading this, please do NOT ask me to show you as I will probably fall flat on my face and end up in A&E. Moving swiftly on, I decided that I am going to combine two of my favourite things so that you will hopefully have an interesting article to read. Yes, ladies and gentlemen, today I am going to bore you with the history of skateboarding (I’m joking, you better find this interesting)!

Skateboarding is quite vintage considering that it originated in the late 1940s/early 1950s. It came about because Californian surfers wanted something to ‘surf’ when the waves were flat. Apparently, no specific person invented the skateboard, it was created by many individuals at around the same time. Originally, skateboards were boxes on wheels which gradually evolved into a board on wheels. The first proper skateboard sold from a shop was in Los Angeles, California. By the 1960s, the number of shops had grown substantially and there were many skateboarding shops in South California. In the coming years, the design of the skateboards were improved and in the 1970s skateparks were constructed from skaters to practice tricks. Then, in the 1980s, the main focus was on doing tricks on these ramps. After that, during the 1990s, street skateboarding came about. It gained popularity and that’s about it. 

So now I hope you know a little bit more about skateboarding which is actually a lot harder than it looks!

JG