This Week in Space Exploration - Mariner 9

 

This Week's Historical Theme: Space Exploration

30 May 1971

A significant event throughout the history of space exploration is the Mariner 9 departing for Mars. The U.S. unmanned space probe was launched to gather scientific information on Mars, the fourth planet from the sun. It is one of the greatest technological achievements in human history. The space craft was launched on 30 May 1971 and entered the planets obit on 13 November the same year. As the first spacecraft to orbit a planet other than Earth, Mariner 9 sent back more than 7,000 pictures of the "Red Planet" and succeeded in photographing Mars in its entirety.

It circled Mars twice each day for almost a year gathering data on the atmospheric and surface composition, density, pressure, and temperature. When Mariner 9 first arrived, Mars was completely obscured by dust storms which persisted for a month. Once these cleared, the space probe revealed the enormous volcanos and a gigantic canyon stretching 3,000 miles across the planet's surface. The probe also recorded what appeared to be dried riverbeds, suggesting the ancient presence of water and perhaps life on the planet. It also sent back the first close-up images of the Martian Moon. Its transmission ended on 27 October 1972.

Want to find out more about Mariner 9? Click here for more information, or here to find out more about the history of space exploration.

This Week in the United Kingdom - Election of Margaret Thatcher

This Week's Historical Theme: The United Kingdom

 

3 May 1979

A significant event throughout the history of the United Kingdom that occurred in May was the election of Margaret Thatcher. Her rise to power started in 1959 when she was elected to Parliament as Conservative MP for Finchley. During the 60s she rose rapidly through the party ranks and in 1970, under Conservative PM Edward Heath, she became Secretary of State for Education and Science. After the Labour Party returned to power in 1974, she replaced Edward Heath as leader of the Conservative Party. The May 3 1979 general election gave Thatcher a majority in Parliament and she became Britain's first female Prime Minister.

She served as Prime Minster from 1979 to 1990, with her 11-year tenure characterised by the privatisation of national industries; cutbacks to government expenditure; and reducing the rights of trade unions. A landmark of her career was the decisive British victory in the 1982 Falkland War with Argentina. This contributed to her image as the "Iron Lady" as she cultivated a reputation for her hard-line politics. Coming to the end of her tenure in 1990, she failed to receive a majority in the Conservative Party's annual vote to select a leader. She subsequently resigned and was made a baroness in 1993. Her three consecutive terms in office marked the longest continuous tenure of a British PM since 1870.

Want to find out more about Margaret Thatcher's political career? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Falkland War.

This Week in Women's Rights - The Equal Rights Amendment

This Week's Historical Theme: Women's Rights

22 March 1972

A significant event throughout the history of women's rights that occurred in March was the passing of the Equality Rights Amendment by the U.S Senate. First proposed by the National Women's political party, it was introduced to Congress in 1923 shortly after women in the United States were granted the right to vote. The ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) was to provide for the legal equality of the sexes and prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex. The revival of feminism in the 1960s led to its approval by the U.S Senate on 22 March 1972 and it was then sent to the states for ratification.

Hawaii was the first state to ratify the ERA followed by 30 other states within a year. However, during the mid 1970s there was a conservative backlash against feminism and thus growing opposition to the ERA led by Phyllis Schlafly. Despite a deadline extension to June 1982, it was not ratified by the requisite majority of 38 states. What would have been the 27th Amendment to the Constitution was therefore rejected. Regardless of the considerable legislation since passed to protect the legal rights of women, due to the rejection of the ERA women still do not legally have equal rights under the U.S Constitution.

Want to find out more about why the Equal Rights Amendment is still yet to be ratified? Click here for more information, or here for more about Phyllis Schlafly's campaign against it.

This Week in the Middle East - The Creation of the United Arab Emirates

This Week's Historical Theme: The Middle East

 

21 December 1971

 

A significant event throughout the history of the Middle East that occurred in December was the formation of the United Arab Emirates. This created a small state with the union of six small Gulf kingdoms, to which a seventh was soon added, that had an outsized role in the global economy. Since this, the sovereign nation has enjoyed the profits of its natural resources, including its reserves of oil and natural gas. Its wealth has turned the Emirates into a major hub of trade, travel, tourism, and finance. The tallest structure in the world, Dubai's Burj Khalifa, is also emblematic of the Emirates' construction boom and rise to global prominence.

 

The kingdoms on the coast of the Arabian Peninsula had been under British protection in the 1820s, which allowed for the discovery of the region's vast oil reserves. This led to the decrease of the British Empire's influence, as the kingdoms became major suppliers of oil. Therefore, in 1968, the British government declared their withdrawal, leaving the people of the region to their own devices. As they were dwarfed by their neighbours in terms of size, population, and military, the kingdoms attempted to organise themselves into one political unit. Although the negotiations proved difficult, the United Arab Emirates was formed, including the kingdoms of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai and Umm al-Quwain. Two months later, Ras al-Khaimah joined.

 

Want to find out more about the creation of the United Arab Emirates? Click here for more information, or here for a wider history of the UAE.

November 25 - The Death of Yukio Mishima

This Day in History: 25 November 2020

 

25 November 1970

 

50 years ago, today, Yukio Mishima, the world-renowned Japanese writer, died by suicide after he failed to win public support for his extreme political beliefs. Mishima was born in 1925 and was obsessed with what he saw as the spiritual barrenness of modern life. He preferred pre-war Japan, due to its patriotism and traditional values. The materialistic, westernised nation that arose after 1945 was despised by him. In this spirit, he founded the 'Shield Society', which was a controversial private army made up of about 100 students that was to defend the emperor in the event of a leftist uprising.

 

On the same day he died, Mishima delivered the last instalment of 'The Sea of Fertility' to his publisher. This was his four-volume epic on Japanese life in the 20^th century that is regarded by many to be his greatest work. He then went with many of his followers to a military building in Tokyo, before seizing control of a general's office. From there, he gave a brief speech to around 1,000 servicemen, urging them to overthrow Japan's constitution. The soldiers, however, were unsympathetic, and Mishima committed 'seppuku', otherwise known as ritual suicide, by disembowelling himself with his sword.

 

Want to find out more about the death of Yukio Mishima? Click here for more information, or here for more about the history of 'seppuku'.

November 18 - The Jonestown Massacre Occurs

This Day in History: 18 November 2020

 

18 November 1978

 

42 years ago, today, Jim Jones, the founder of the Peoples Temple, led hundreds of his followers to commit mass suicide in Jonestown. Many of them willingly ingested a poison-laced drink while others were forced to do so at gunpoint. The final death toll at Jonestown that day was 909; a third of those who perished were children. He had commanded everyone to gather in the main pavilion and commit what he termed a 'revolutionary act'. The youngest members of the Peoples Temple were the first to die, as parents and nurses used syringes to poison the children. Adults then lined up to drink the poison while armed guards surrounded the pavilion.

 

People Temple was a Christian sect that preached against racism, attracting many African Americans. The church was accused by the media of financial fraud, physical abuse and mistreatment of children in the 1970s, causing Jones to move the congregation to Guyana, where he promised a socialist utopia. When Guyanese officials arrived at the Jonestown compound the next day, they found it carpeted with hundreds of bodies. Many people had perished with their arms around each other. A few residents managed to escape into the jungle as the suicides took place, while at least several dozen more Peoples Temple members, including several of Jones' sons, survived as they were in another part of Guyana at the time.

 

Want to find out more about the Jonestown massacre? Click here for more information, or here for more about how Jones spread his message of death.

November 15 - The Shah of Iran Visits President Carter

This Day in History: 15 November 2020

 

15 November 1977

 

43 years ago, today, President Carter hosted the shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and his wife, Shahbanou Farrah, to Washington. Over the next two days, Carter and Pahlavi discussed improving relations between the two countries. The official discussions centred on peace prospects for the Middle East as well as ways to combat the energy crisis that had hit the West in the early 1970s. At the time, Carter hoped to enlist Iran's help in reconvening peace talks between Israel and Egypt. He also wanted Iran's help in supporting nuclear non-proliferation talks with the Soviet Union.

 

The visit ended on a positive note, and the next month, Carter and his wife travelled to Tehran. Two years later, the two leaders' political fates would be further entwined when Islamic fundamentalists overthrew the shah and took Americans hostage in Tehran. In October 1979, the exiled shah came to the United States for cancer treatment. Carter's hospitality toward the shah enraged a group of radical Iranian students, who stormed the US embassy in Tehran in November, taking 66 Americans hostage. This crisis lasted 444 days and Carter's inability to secure their release led to his replacement by Ronald Reagan in 1980.

 

Want to find out more about the shah's disposition? Click here for more information, or here for more about the hostage crisis.

November 10 - Copies of 'Slaughterhouse-Five' are Burned

This Day in History: 10 November 2020

 

10 November 1973

 

47 years ago, today, newspaper reports were published detailing the burning of 36 copies of 'Slaughterhouse-Five' by Kurt Vonnegut in North Dakota. This book was a combination of real events and was also science fiction. The hero, Billy Pilgrim, was a World War II soldier who had witnessed the firebombing of Dresden, which Vonnegut himself had seen. Pilgrim becomes 'unstuck in time' and lives a double existence. One of his lives is based on an alien planet where a resigned acceptance of doom expresses itself. In his other life on Earth, Pilgrim preaches the same philosophy. Many found the book's pessimistic outlook and bleak humour unsuitable for school children.

 

In 1992, Vonnegut was born in Indiana. During World War II, he was captured by Germans and held in Dresden, where he was forced to dig out dead and charred bodies in the aftermath of the city's bombing. After the war, he studied anthropology at the University of Chicago and later wrote journalism and public relations material. His other novels include 'Cat's Cradle', 'Breakfast of Champions', 'Galapagos' and others, but did not generate as much controversy as 'Slaughterhouse-Five'. His experimental writing style, combining the real, the absurd and the satiric, attracted attention and made his books popular. He died in 2007.

 

Want to find out more about the controversy surrounding 'Slaughterhouse-Five'? Click here for more information, or here for more about Kurt Vonnegut.

October 17 - OPEC Cuts Oil Exports

This Day in History: 17 October 2020

 

17 October 1973

 

47 years ago, today, the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries, consisting of many oil producing Arab nations, announced their decision to cut oil exports to the United States and other nations that militarily helped Israel during the Yom Kippur War. According to OPEC, exports were to be reduced by 5% every month until Israel evacuated the territories gained in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. However, Israel refused to withdraw. In December, a full oil embargo was imposed against the United States and many other countries, initiating a serious energy crisis in the United States and other nations dependent on Arab oil.

 

In 1960, OPEC was founded by Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Venezuela with the objective of raising the price of oil. They had little impact at first, but by the early 1970s, an increase in demand and the decline of US oil production gave it more popularity. In 1974, the embargo was lifted once Henry Kissinger, the US Secretary of State, negotiated a military disengagement between Syria and Israel. Nevertheless, oil prices remained very high. By the 1980s, the influence of OPEC on the world, however, began to decline, as Western nations were successfully exploiting alternate sources of energy, like coal and nuclear power.

 

Want to find out more about OPEC? Click here for more information, or here for more about the 1970s energy crisis.

Black History Month - Olive Morris

Black History Month: 16 October 2020

 

Olive Morris was a community activist in South London during the 1970s. She led protests and demonstrations, while also helping to create the Brixton Black Women's Group in 1973, one of Britain's first official networks for black women. When she was only 16, she became involved in an incident where police tried to arrest a Nigerian diplomat, who had parked his Mercedes in Brixton to purchase some records. Olive came forward and physically tried to stop the police from attacking the diplomat, causing the police to instead arrest her and assault her. This was only an early incident of Olive's commitment to challenging oppression.

 

In the late 1960s, Olive became involved in the British Black Panther Movement, whose mission was to promote self-determination and challenge the British state. During her years studying at Manchester University, she also became involved in the community struggles in Moss Side, contributing to the formation of the Black Women's Mutual Aid and the Manchester Black Women's Co-op. At the age of 27, she died, and was buried in Streatham Vale Cemetery. However, her legacy still lives on as in 2011, the Olive Morris Memorial Award was launched to give bursaries to young black women.

 

Want to find out more about Olive Morris? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Memorial Award.

October 13 - The Landshut Crisis

This Day in History: 13 October 2020

 

13 October 1977

 

43 years ago, today, four Palestinians hijacked a Lufthansa airliner, named the 'Landshut', and demanded for the release of 11 imprisoned members the German terrorist group, Baader-Meinhof, also known as the Red Army Faction. This was a group of ultra-left revolutionaries who terrorised Germany for three decades, as they assassinated more than 30 corporate, military and government leaders in an attempt to topple German capitalism. Their activity had peaked in the same year, leading to the national crisis of the 'German Autumn'. In total, they were responsible for 34 deaths, and many injuries, and 27 members or supporters were killed.

 

The Palestinian hijackers had taken the plane on a 6-country journey, eventually landing in Mogadishu, Somalia, four days later, after shooting one of the plane's pilots. Early the next morning, a German special forces team stormed the aircraft, releasing 86 hostages and killing three of the four hijackers. Luckily, only one of the German soldiers was wounded. Later that day, the Red Army Faction's imprisoned leaders responded to the news by committing suicide in their jail cell. After the crisis, the German government stated that it would never again negotiate with terrorists. Chancellor Helmut Schmidt was widely praised for his decision to rescue the hostages, although some countries criticised the risk-taking.

 

Want to find out more about the Landshut crisis? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Red Army Faction.

October 4 - The Death of Janis Joplin

This Day in History: 4 October 2020

 

4 October 1970

 

50 years ago, today, Janis Joplin died of an accidental heroin overdose, at 27 years old. She was discovered in her Los Angeles hotel room, where she had been putting the finishing touches on the album that would prove to be the biggest of her career, 'Pearl'. Prior to her death, she had transformed from a complete unknown into a generational icon on the basis of one spectacular performance at the Monterey International Pop Festival in 1967. She would follow this up with three years of touring and recording that cemented her status as "second only to Bob Dylan."

 

It was never just music, or the passion she displayed while performing, that made Joplin an icon. It was the gusto with which she lived every other aspect of her life, as well. The revolutionary philosophy in the late 1960s of 'sex, drugs, and rock and roll' had Janis Joplin as its leading female exponent. Her string of romantic relationships ranged from Kris Kristofferson to Dick Cavett, and her drug and alcohol consumption was prolific. She was posthumously added into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995 and remains one of the top-selling musicians in the United States.

 

Want to find out more about Janis Joplin? Click here for more information, or here for a video of her last interview.

September 10 - Last Execution by Guillotine

This Day in History: 10 September 2020

 

10 September 1977

 

43 years, ago, Hamida Djandoubi became the last person executed by the guillotine. He was a Tunisian agricultural worker and was convicted of murder. After moving to Marseille, France, he kidnapped, tortured and murdered his former girlfriend, Élisabeth Bousquet. One month later, he kidnapped another girl who was able to escape and report him to the police. Even though he was the last person executed in France, he was not the last condemned. After capital punishment was abolished in France in 1981, following the election of François Mitterrand, no more executions occurred. Those sentenced to death had their sentences replaced.

 

During the French Revolution, the guillotine first gained fame. Supporters of the machine viewed the devices as more humane than other execution techniques, such as hanging and use of the firing squad. In 1792, a French decapitating machine was built and tested on cadavers, before the first person in Revolutionary France was executed using this method. More than 10,000 people lost their heads by guillotine in this period, including Louis XVI and Mary Antoinette, the former king and queen of France. However, use of the guillotine continued in France in the 19^th and 20^th centuries.

 

Want to find out more about the guillotine? Click here for more information, or here for more about the last execution.

September 9 - The Death of Mao Zedong

This Day in History: 9 September 2020

 

9 September 1976

 

44 years ago, today, Mao Zedong died. He had led the Chinese people through a long revolution and ruled the nation's communist party from its establishment in 1949. The leader's health had declined in his last years, most likely aggravated by his heavy chain-smoking. During his later years, it became a state secret that he suffered from multiple lung and heart problems. There are unconfirmed reports that he had Parkinson's disease, as well as Lou Gehrig's disease. Mao's body was embalmed, and one million Chinese paid their final respects by crying. More than a week later, his body was taken in a minibus to a hospital, where his internal organs were preserved in formaldehyde.

 

Mao's early days as a communist had not been easy, as he constantly feared arrest and execution by Chinese government forces. However, in 1935, he was able to take control of the Chinese Communist Party, which won the Chinese Civil War. Throughout his rule, he was invested in reinvigorating the nation with the Cultural Revolution in the mid-1960s. Thousands of Chinese were killed or imprisoned by Mao's young supporters, named the Red Guards. Meanwhile, Mao was seeking closer relations with the Americans than the Soviet Union, as he hoped to use them as allies in his battles against the Soviets, taking a dramatic turn in the Cold War.

 

Want to find out more about the life of Mao Zedong? Click here for more information, or here for a video about China's Cultural Revolution.

September 5 - The Munich Olympics Massacre

This Day in History: 5 September 2020

 

5 September 1972

 

48 years ago, today, the Munich Olympics massacre began, when a group of Palestinian terrorists stormed the Olympic Village apartment of Israeli athletes. Two were killed, and nine others were taken hostage. The terrorists were part of a group known as Black September. In return for the release of the hostages, they demanded that Israel release over 230 Arabs being held in Israeli jails, as well as two German terrorists. At Munich airport, the nine Israeli hostages were killed along with five terrorists in a shootout. Olympic competition was suspended for 24 hours in memorial for the athletes.

 

At the main Munich Olympic stadium, after the memorial service was held, it was ordered that the games continue by the International Olympic Committee President Avery Brundage, in order to show that the terrorists had not won. Even though the tragedy deeply scarred the games, there were still many moments of great athletic achievement. This included American swimmer Mark Spitz's seven gold medals. In the aftermath of the murders and Olympics, the Israeli government, led by Golda Meir, hired a group of Mossad agents to track down and kill the Black September terrorists.

 

Want to find out more about the Munich Olympics massacre? Click here for more information, or watch the 2005 Stephen Spielberg film 'Munich', which was based on these events.

Skateboarding

One of my favourite hobbies when I’m not locked in my study doing homework is going skateboarding. If you are one of my nearest and dearest and you are reading this, please do NOT ask me to show you as I will probably fall flat on my face and end up in A&E. Moving swiftly on, I decided that I am going to combine two of my favourite things so that you will hopefully have an interesting article to read. Yes, ladies and gentlemen, today I am going to bore you with the history of skateboarding (I’m joking, you better find this interesting)!

Skateboarding is quite vintage considering that it originated in the late 1940s/early 1950s. It came about because Californian surfers wanted something to ‘surf’ when the waves were flat. Apparently, no specific person invented the skateboard, it was created by many individuals at around the same time. Originally, skateboards were boxes on wheels which gradually evolved into a board on wheels. The first proper skateboard sold from a shop was in Los Angeles, California. By the 1960s, the number of shops had grown substantially and there were many skateboarding shops in South California. In the coming years, the design of the skateboards were improved and in the 1970s skateparks were constructed from skaters to practice tricks. Then, in the 1980s, the main focus was on doing tricks on these ramps. After that, during the 1990s, street skateboarding came about. It gained popularity and that’s about it. 

So now I hope you know a little bit more about skateboarding which is actually a lot harder than it looks!

JG

The 70s

There was a fascinating programme on BBC2 last night about Britain in the 1970s. Historian Dominic Sandbrook cut through the stereotypes of that era to show that the decade was remarkably progressive culturally and socially. Last night's episode dealt with with the early years of the decade, and considered issues as diverse as the Ugandan Refugees, the 1972 Miners' Strike and David Bowie.  Politics students will find the struggles of Ted Heath to maintain political control during increasing economic and social turmoil to be of particular interest, with Mrs Thatcher hovering ominously in the background...

PS: There is more about Britain in the 1970s, including contributions from Andrew Marr here.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/decades/1970s/default.stm