August 31 - The Death of Princess Diana

This Day in History: 31 August 2020

 

31 August 1997

 

23 years ago, today, Princess Diana died in a car crash in Paris, along with her boyfriend, the Egyptian socialite Dodi Fayed, and the driver of the car, Henri Paul. Diana and Dodi, who had been on holiday in Paris, departed the hotel they had been staying at just after midnight. A swarm of paparazzi on motorbikes began to aggressively follow the car. Three minutes later, the driver lost control and crashed into a pillar at the entrance of the Pont de l'Alma tunnel. Diana's former husband, Prince Charles, and other members of the royal family, arrived in Paris that morning, and Diana's body was taken back to London.

 

Similar to much of her life, her death was made into a full-blown media sensation, as well as the subject of many conspiracy theories. The public reacted to her death with a massive outpouring of grief, and mourners began to visit Kensington Palace immediately. Piles of flowers at the palace's gate reached around 30 feet. At first, the paparazzi tailing the car were blamed for the crash, but later it was revealed that the driver was under the influence of alcohol and prescription drugs. On September 6, Diana's funeral in London was watched by over 2 billion people.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Princess Diana? Click here for more information, or here for more about her legacy.

August 30 - Guion Bluford Becomes the First African-American in Space

This Day in History: 30 August 2020

 

30 August 1983

 

37 years ago, today, Guion S. Bluford became the first African American to travel into space when the space shuttle 'Challenger' lifted off on its third mission. It was the first night launch of the space shuttle, and many people stayed up late to watch the spacecraft take off. The 'Challenger' spent six days in space, where Bluford and his fellow crew members launched a communications satellite for India's government, conducted scientific experiments and tested the shuttle's robotic arm. The shuttle landed back in California on September 5, ending the most flawless shuttle mission of the time.

 

Bluford, from a young age, had been fascinated by flight and decided he wanted to design and build airplanes. In 1964, he graduated from Penn State with a degree in aerospace engineering and entered the US Air Force a year later. He was assigned to a fighter squadron in Vietnam, where he flew 144 combat missions. After his combat service, he became a flight instructor, and received a master's degree in aerospace engineering in the 1970s. In 1979, he was accepted into the US astronaut program, in total logging 700 hours in orbit. After returning from NASA, he became vice president and general manager of an engineering company in Ohio.

 

Want to find out more about the life of Guion S. Bluford? Click here for more information, or here for more about more African-American astronauts.

August 29 - The Women's Defence Relief Corps is Formed

This Day in History: 29 August 2020

 

29 August 1914

 

106 years ago, today, the Women's Defence Relief Corps was formed in Britain, as World War One approached the end of its first month. Although women's rights organisations in Britain had been initially opposed to the country's entrance into the war, they soon reversed their position. They recognised the opportunity to gain advancement for British women on the home front. To encourage women to undertake work freeing a man for the fighting line, the Women's Defence Relief Corps were founded by Mrs Dawson Scott. The Corps specialised in getting farmers in touch with casual labour and was comprised of at least 465 women by 1916.

 

The Women's Defence Relief Corps were not the only women's organisation formed over the course of the war. Two nursing organisations already existed in 1914, which were the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry and the Voluntary Aid Detachments. Another organisation founded later during World War One, in July 1917, was the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps. Members of this group supported the war effort more directly, as they enlisted in the army to perform domestic duties, such as cookery and clerical work. By the end of the war, around 80,000 women had served Britain as non-combatants, both on the home front and on the front lines in France and Belgium.

 

Want to find out more about the role of women in World War One? Click here for more information, or here for find out more about the Women's Defence Relief Corps.

August 28 - Martin Luther King's 'I Have a Dream' Speech

This Day in History: 28 August 2020

 

28 August 1963

 

57 years ago, today, Martin Luther King, Jr delivered his 'I Have a Dream' speech, during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, to about 250,000 people. The demonstrators, both black and white, and poor and rich, came together in the nation's capital to demand voting rights and equal opportunities for African Americans. This was in an attempt to appeal for an end to racial segregation and discrimination. The civil rights movement achieved two of its greatest successes in the next year: the ratification of the 24^th Amendment and the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, placing King's speech among the most iconic in American history.

 

With the statue of Abraham Lincoln towering behind him, King used the rhetorical talents he had developed as a Baptist preacher. He told of the struggle ahead and stressed the importance of continued action and nonviolent protest. As he came to the end of his prepared text, he was overwhelmed by the moment and launched into an improvised sermon. Prompted by Mahalia Jackson's cry: 'tell them about the dream, Martin!', King described his dreams of freedom and equality arising from a land of slavery and hatred. By equating the civil rights movement with the highest and noblest ideals of American tradition, King allowed many to see for the first time the importance and urgency of racial equality.

 

Want to find out more about Martin Luther King's powerful speech? Click here for more information, or here for more about the civil rights movement prior to King's speech. Click here for a video of King's speech.

August 27 - The Krakatoa Volcano Erupts

This Day in History: 27 August 2020

 

27 August 1883

 

137 years ago, today, the most powerful volcanic eruption occurred on Krakatoa, a small island in Indonesia. The explosions, that were heard 3,000 miles away, created 120-foot tsunamis and killed around 36,000 people. In May, Krakatoa had shown its first stirrings in more than 200 years. For the next two months, explosions would often be witnessed by commercial liners and natives on nearby islands. Local inhabitants greeted the volcanic activity with festive excitement, naïve to the threat that the volcano posed. This excitement, however, quickly turned to horror when Krakatoa blew itself apart, and set off a chain of natural disasters around the world.

 

The gushing mountain generated a series of pyroclastic flow and enormous tsunamis that swept over nearby coastlines. Ash was propelled to heights of 50 miles, as fine dust from the explosion drifted around the earth, forming an atmospheric veil that lowered temperatures worldwide by several degrees. Of the 36,000 deaths caused by the eruption, at least 31,000 were from the tsunamis created when much of the island fell into the water. These waves washed over nearby islands, stripping away vegetation and dragging people out to sea. Another 4,500 were scorched to death by the pyroclastic flows. As well as Krakatoa, which is still active today, Indonesia has another 130 active volcanoes, the most of any country.

 

Want to find out more about the deadly Krakatoa explosion? Click here for more information, or here for more about the deadliest volcanic eruption in history.

August 26 - The Battle of Crecy

This Day in History: 26 August 2020

 

26 August 1346

 

674 years ago, today, the Battle of Crecy occurred during the Hundred Years War, in Normandy, between King Edward III's English army and King Philip VI's French army. The battle saw the early usage of the deadly longbow by the English and is regarded as one of the most decisive in history. A month prior, Edward had landed an invasion force of about 14,000 men on the Normandy coast, where the English army began to march north into the French countryside. Once King Philip learned of Edward's arrival, he rallied an army of 12,000 men, made up of knights and Genoese crossbowmen. Edward halted his army at Crecy and prepared for French attack.

 

The 4,000 Genoese crossbowmen led the assault, but they were quickly overwhelmed by Edward's 10,000 longbowmen, who could reload much faster and fire further. The crossbowmen retreated, before the whole French army finally withdrew at nightfall. Nearly a third of their army were killed in the battle, including Philip's own brother, Charles II of Alencon, and 1,500 other knights and esquires. Philip himself escaped with only a wound, but English losses were less than a hundred. The battle marked a decline in the use of the mounted knight in European warfare, and the rise of England as a world power. From Crecy, Edward would march on to Calais, which ultimately surrendered to him in 1347.

 

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August 25 - The Death of Samantha Smith

This Day in History: 25 August 2020

 

25 August 1985

 

35 years ago, today, Samantha Smith, the young 'ambassador' to the Soviet Union, died in a plane crash, aged 13. In late 1982, Smith had written a worrisome letter to the Soviet leader, Yuri Andropov. She expressed her fears of a possible nuclear war between the United States and Soviet Union. A few months later, Smith's letter was reprinted in Russia, and it was announced that Andropov was writing a response. In April 1983, she received his letter, and was assured that the Soviet Union did not want a nuclear war with the United States or any other country. Andropov closed the letter with an invitation to the Soviet Union, which Smith and her parents embarked upon in July.

 

Although Smith did not get to meet Andropov on her trip, she spoke to many people and groups in the country. Back in the United States, however, some people labelled her as the Soviet Union's pawn, and claimed that she was merely communist propaganda. Despite this, her enthusiasm and optimism charmed the American majority and millions of others around the world. During the next two years, Samantha became an unofficial US goodwill ambassador, and spoke to groups in the United States and many foreign nations. After Samantha and her father's plane crashed, her legacy still lived on through the Samantha Smith Foundation. Set up by her mother, the foundation's goal was to bring people from different nations and cultures together to share their experiences. The Soviet government responded to Samantha's death by issuing a stamp in her honour and naming a mountain after her.

 

Want to find out more about Samantha Smith's interactions with the Soviet Union? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Samantha Smith Foundation. 

August 24 - The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

This Day in History: 24 August 2020

 

24 August 1572

 

448 years ago, today, the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre occurred. King Charles IX of France, under the influence of his mother, Catherine de Medici, had ordered the assassination of Huguenot Protestant leaders in Paris. This set of a sequence of killings that resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of Huguenots across France. Catherine had ordered the murder of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny two days earlier, a Huguenot leader who she felt was leading her son into war with Spain. Charles promised to investigate the assassination to satisfy the Huguenots, but Catherine convinced Charles that a rebellion was soon to happen, prompting Charles to order the murder of the Huguenot leaders.

 

As Coligny did not die from Catherine's assassination attempt, he was instead brutally beaten and thrown out of his bedroom window. Once the killings began, mobs of Catholic Parisians initiated their own general massacre of Huguenots. The next day, Charles issued a royal order to stop the murders, but the massacres instead spread as his pleas went unheard. The mass slaughters continued into October, and reached the provinces of Rouen, Lyon, Bourges, Bordeaux and Orleans. In Paris, an estimated 3,000 French Protestants were killed, and in all of France, as many as 70,000. This massacre marked the resumption of religious civil war in France.

 

Want to find out more about the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre? Click here for more information, or click here for a video explaining more about the French Wars of Religion.

August 23 - The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

This Day in History: 23 August 2020

 

23 August 1939

 

81 years ago, today, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact. This shocked the world, given the countries' contrasting ideologies. Despite appearances of the pact, both dictators were playing to their own political needs. After Nazi Germany's invasion of Czechoslovakia, Britain had to decide to what extent they would intervene with Hitler's presumed German expansion. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain made it clear that if Poland was threatened, Britain would be obliged to aid them. The only power large enough to stop Hitler that Britain could use as an ally were the Soviet Union, but Stalin was less interested. Poland's leaders were also worried about the prospect of the Soviets becoming their guardians, as to them, it was still an occupation by a monstrous regime.

 

Hitler knew that Britain would never face him alone, so he decided to swallow his fear of communism and become friendly with Stalin. Both Stalin and Hitler were suspicious of the other, but Hitler knew that he had to be quick to invade Poland. The two agreed to partition Poland, and the pact was signed by each nation's foreign minister, giving the agreement the name of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Supporters of bolshevism around the world were outraged that Stalin would enter into any kind of alliance with the fascist dictator. However, once Poland became German-occupied territory, the union fell apart. The pact made sure that any hope the Poles might have had of a Soviet counter-response would never become reality.

 

Want to find out more about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about the German occupation of Poland.

August 22 - The Assassination of Michael Collins

This Day in History: 22 August 2020

 

22 August 1922

 

98 years ago, today, Michael Collins, an Irish revolutionary and Sinn Fein politician, was assassinated in west County Cork, Ireland. Collins had joined Sinn Fein, an Irish political party striving for Irish independence, in the early part of the century. The party became the unofficial political wing of militant Irish groups in their struggle against British rule. Irish Home Rule was approved in 1911 by the British Liberal government but was opposed by the Conservative Party in Parliament. The outbreak of World War One further delayed discussion on Irish self-determination, which Collins and other Irish nationalists responded with by staging the Easter Rising of 1916.

 

Sinn Fein was finally given a majority in national elections in 1918, when Ireland was threatened with the imposition of conscription. The party established an independent Irish parliament, Dail Eireann, which declared Ireland as a sovereign republic. Collins led the Irish Volunteers, a prototype of the Irish Republican Army, in 1919, in a large guerrilla campaign against British forces. Collins was also one of the architects of the historic 1921 peace treaty with Great Britain, which granted autonomy to southern Ireland. When Arthur Griffith, the founder of Sinn Fein, was elected president of the newly established Irish Free State, Collins was appointed as his finance minister, until he was assassinated by Republican extremists.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Michael Collins? Click here for more information, or here for facts that you may have not known about him.

August 21 - Hawaii Becomes the 50th State of America

This Day in History: 21 August 2020

 

21 August 1959

 

61 years ago, today, Hawaii became the 50^th state of the United States, when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed a proclamation that admitted Hawaii into the Union. The president also issued an order for an American flag to feature 50 stars arranged in staggered rows. This new flag became official almost a year later. Before it became an official US state, Hawaii was organised into a formal US territory in 1900. During World War Two, Hawaii also became firmly settled into the American national identity following the surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941.

 

The first known settlers of the Hawaiian Islands were Polynesian voyagers who had arrived in the 8^th century. In the early 18^th century, Hawaii was first opened to America when traders came to exploit the islands' sandalwood, which was valuable to China at the time. The sugar industry was later introduced to Hawaii by the 1830s, allowing American missionaries to bring about great changes in Hawaiian political, cultural, economic and religious life. The last reigning monarch of Hawaii, Queen Liliuokalani, was deposed by US marines in 1893, leading to the creation of the Republic of Hawaii one year later.

 

Want to find out more about how Hawaii came to be the 50^th United State? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about Hawaii's history.

August 20 - The Assassination of Leon Trotsky

This Day in History: 20 August 2020

 

20 August 1940

 

80 years ago, today, Leon Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico by Ramón Mercader, a Spanish communist and likely agent of Joseph Stalin. Before his death, he had settled on the island of Prinkipo, where he worked on finishing his autobiography and the history of the Russian Revolution. After living there for four years, Trotsky moved to France and then Norway, but was granted asylum in Mexico in 1936. During Stalin's purges of political foes, Trotsky was found guilty of treason. He survived a machine gun attack by Stalin's agents, but could not survive Mercader's assault. The Soviet government denied responsibility, and Mercader was sentenced to 20 years in prison by Mexican authorities.

 

Trotsky had been a Russian revolutionary, political theorist and politician. A few weeks before the October Revolution, he joined the Bolshevik Party and became one of the party's key leaders. Once in government, Trotsky held the post of the Commissar of Foreign Affairs but became more prominent as the Russian Civil War broke out. He became the leader of the Red Army, making him a vital factor in the army's victory. However, after the death of Vladimir Lenin and the rise of Joseph Stalin, Trotsky was removed from his positions and was eventually expelled from the Soviet Union. As a result, Trotsky was critical of Stalinism and was written out of the history books under Stalin.

 

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August 19 - The Coup Against Gorbachev Begins

This Day in History: 19 August 2020

 

19 August 1991

 

29 years ago, today, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev was placed under house arrest at his holiday home in the Crimea, during a coup by high-ranking members of his own government, military and police. The hard-line elements within Gorbachev's own administration, as well as the heads of the Soviet army and the KGB, pressured Gorbachev to resign. He refused, but the coup leaders had another plan. They claimed that Gorbachev was ill, and declared a state of emergency, before attempting to take control of the government. After thousands took to the streets to protest the coup, prompted by Boris Yeltsin, the coup collapsed after only three days.

 

After becoming secretary of the Communist Party in 1985, and Soviet President in 1988, Gorbachev had pursued many reforms of the Soviet system. He combined 'perestroika', meaning restructuring the economy, and 'glasnost', meaning openness in diplomacy to greatly improve Soviet relations with the west. However, within the country, Gorbachev was heavily criticised, as many thought he was driving the Soviet Union towards its downfall. After the coup had fallen, the Communist Party was gradually dissolved. The Soviet Union also fell, and Gorbachev resigned in December.

 

Want to find out more about the 1991 August coup? Click here for a video with more information, or here for more about the life and presidency of Gorbachev.

August 18 - The 19th Amendment is Ratified

This Day in History: 18 August 2020

 

18 August 1920

 

100 years ago, today, the 19^th Amendment was ratified to the United States Constitution, after decades of struggle and protest by suffragettes across the country. The decisive vote was cast by a 24-year-old representative who supposedly changed his vote after receiving a note from his mother. By March 1920, only one more state needed to ratify the amendment for it to become law. The State Senate of Tennessee voted to ratify, but the House failed to do so twice. Harry T. Burn was one of the against votes, but once he had received a letter from his mother, Febb Ensminger Burn, he changed his mind. Thanks to his single vote, Tennessee ratified the 19^th Amendment, guaranteeing women the right to vote.

 

The suffrage movement in America was founded in the mid 19^th century, with a key meeting occurring in July 1848 between 200 woman suffragists, at Seneca Falls. For proclaiming a woman's right to vote, the Seneca Falls Convention was subjected to public ridicule, and some supporters of women's rights were now against it. As World War One broke out, the National American Woman Suffrage Association urged women to prove their worth to the war effort. Meanwhile, the National Women's Party engaged in civil disobedience and targeted President Woodrow Wilson with protests. After pressure grew on multiple fronts, Wilson finally called a special session of Congress in May 1919 and personally appealed for women's suffrage.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the 19^th Amendment? Click here for more information, or here for more about Burn's mother who saved suffrage.

August 17 - The Death of Rudolf Hess

This Day in History: 17 August 2020

 

17 August 1987

 

33 years ago, today, Rudolf Hess, Hitler's last living henchmen, died. He had been Hitler's former deputy, making him the last surviving member of Hitler's inner circle. Hess, the only prisoner at Spandau Prison since 1966, was found strangled to death in the prison located in Berlin, at the age of 93, supposedly the victim of suicide. He was discovered in a cabin in the exercise yard, where he had apparently chocked himself to death with an electrical cord, but many suspected foul play. After Ness' death, the prison was demolished to prevent it from becoming a neo-Nazi shrine.

 

Hess was an early and devoted follower of Nazism, and even participated in Hitler's failed 'Beer Hall Putsch' in 1923. A decade later, after Hitler had dedicated 'Mein Kampf' to Hess, he was appointed as deputy Nazi party leader. However, Hitler later lost faith in his leadership skills. During World War Two, in May 1941, Hess stole and landed an airplane in Scotland to negotiate a peace between Britain and Germany, but by May, the Battle of Britain had been lost by Germany. The British authorities arrested Hess immediately when he landed and held him in custody until the end of the war. Because he had sought peace and had missed out on the worst years of Nazi atrocities, he was sentenced to life imprisonment in the Nuremberg Trials.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Rudolf Hess? Click here for more information, or here for more about the most notorious Nazis who escaped to South America.

August 16 - The Death of Elvis Presley

This Day in History: 16 August 2020

 

16 August 1977

 

43 years ago, today, Elvis Presley died at his mansion in Memphis, most likely of a heart attack brought on by his addiction to prescription barbiturates. He was found unconscious, and was rushed to the hospital, where he was pronounced dead. Elvis has been in declining physical and mental health by the mid 1970s. In 1973, he divorced his wife and developed a dangerous dependence on prescription drugs. He also had another addiction, to junk food, leading him to gain considerable weight. In the last two years of his life, he made erratic stage appearances and lived isolated.

 

Throughout the 1950s, Elvis dominated the music charts and spearheaded the age of rock and roll. He opened doors for both white and black rock artists, and even starred in many successful films, which usually featured his soundtracks. His style underwent a blues-inspired change after he was discharged as a sergeant in 1960, but by the end of the decade, Elvis was no longer seen as relevant by the American youth. The place of his burial, on the grounds of his Graceland mansion, continues to attract fans and has been turned into a highly successful tourist attraction.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Elvis Presley? Click here for more information, or here for a video with a news report from the day after Elvis' death. 

August 15 - Victory over Japan Day

This Day in History: 15 August 2020

 

15 August 1945

 

75 years ago, today, Emperor Hirohito announced Japan's surrender, bringing World War Two to an end. This day is now commemorated as Victory over Japan Day. Although Tokyo had already communicated to the Allies its acceptance of the surrender terms of the Potsdam Conference several days earlier, the Japanese people were still waiting to hear an authoritative voice speak the unspeakable truth that Japan had been defeated. This voice was the emperor's. A Japanese news service announcement had even been made prior to the announcement but this was not sufficient enough for the Japanese.

 

Emperor Hirohito's voice, that was broadcast over the radio airwaves for the first time, confessed that Japan's enemy had begun to employ the most devastating bomb, capable of taking the toll of many innocent lives. This bomb was the atomic bombs that had been dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in the days prior. Hirohito's oral memoirs, published and translated after the war, was evidence of the emperor's fear at the time that 'the Japanese race will be destroyed if the war continues'. A large issue in the Japanese surrender terms had been Hirohito's status, as Tokyo wanted his status as emperor protected. Hirohito retained his title but was forced to disclaim his divine status, meaning that Japan not only lost a war, but also lost a god.

 

Want to find out more about V-J Day? Click here for more information, or here for more about the life of Emperor Hirohito.

August 14 - The Social Security Act

This Day in History: 14 August 2020

 

14 August 1935

 

85 years ago, today, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Social Security Act into law. This historic act guaranteed an income for the unemployed and those retired. Roosevelt commended Congress for what he considered to be a 'patriotic' act. He also expressed concern for the young people who had to worry about finance when they came to old age, as well as those who had employment but no secure job. Although he acknowledged that the government could never protect the population completely, he hoped the act would prevent senior citizens from poverty.

 

Roosevelt had taken the leadership of the United States in 1932 in the midst of the Great Depression, the nation's worst economic crisis. The Social Security Act was in keeping with Roosevelt's other 'New Deal' programs, including the establishment of the Works Progress Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps. This attempted to pull America out of the Great Depression by putting Americans back to work. Today, Social Security now functions primarily as a safety net for retirees and the disabled, although it was initially created to combat unemployment. It has also remained relatively unchanged since 1935.

 

Want to find out more about the Social Security Act? Click here for more information, or here for more about the first Social Security cheque.

August 13 - The Berlin Wall is Constructed

This Day in History: 13 August 2020

 

13 August 1961

 

59 years ago, today, Berlin was divided, as construction of the Berlin Wall began. Walter Ulbricht, the Communist leader of East Germany, received permission from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev to begin the sealing off of all access between East and West Berlin in August. Throughout the night of August 12, soldiers began to lay more than 100 miles of barbed wire inside the East Berlin border, which was soon replaced by a brick wall. This wall was patrolled day and night by East German officers, known as the Volkspolizei, and was complete with guard towers, machine gun posts and searchlights.

 

After World War Two, Germany was divided into Soviet, American, British and French zones of occupation. The city of Berlin was also split, with the Soviets taking the eastern part of the city. Their influence over the section grew stronger after the Western powers foiled a Soviet attempt to blockade West Berlin. Over the next 12 years, East Germany saw between 2.5 to 3 million of its citizens head to West Germany in search of better opportunities. The two parts of Germany were finally unified on October 3, 1990, after the wall was dismantled by East and West Germans, destroying the largest symbol of the Cold War.

 

Want to find out more about the Berlin Wall? Click here for more information, or here for a video about the mistake that toppled the wall.

August 12 - The Death of Cleopatra

This Day in History: 12 August 2020

 

12 August 30 B.C.

 

2050 years ago, today, Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt and lover of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, took her life following the defeat of her forces against Octavian, the future first emperor of Rome. Although they had suffered a decisive defeat, it was nearly a year before Octavian finally reached Alexandria and again defeated Antony. In the aftermath of the battle, Cleopatra took refuge, leading Antony to be misinformed of her death, before stabbing himself and dying. Once Octavian had arrived, Cleopatra committed suicide to avoid witnessing his domination. He then executed her son, Caesarion, and used Cleopatra's treasure to pay off his veterans.

 

Cleopatra was made queen of Egypt upon the death of her father, Ptolemy XII. Her brother was made King Ptolemy XIII at the same time, causing them to rule the country under the title of husband and wife. Although Cleopatra had no Egyptian blood, she learned Egyptian and was also proclaimed as the daughter of Re, the Egyptian sun god, to further her influence. She would later extend her political power by captivating the Roman leader, Julius Caesar, and the powerful Roman general, Mark Antony. Cleopatra bore children with both men, naming Caesar's child Caesarion, meaning 'little Caesar', and twins with Mark Antony, named Alexander Helios, after the sun, and Cleopatra Selene, after the moon.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Cleopatra? Click here for more information, or here for some little known facts about the Egyptian queen.

August 11 - The Watts Riots Begin

This Day in History: 11 August 2020

 

11 August 1965

 

55 years ago, today, the Watts riots began, in Watts, Los Angeles, a predominantly black neighbourhood. Racial tension had reached a breaking point after two white policemen scuffled with a black motorist suspected of drunken driving. Near the corner of Avalon Boulevard and 116^th street, a crowd of spectators gathered to watch the arrest and soon grew angry and dissatisfied at what they believed to be yet another incident of racially motivated abuse carried out by the police. An uprising soon began, prompted by residents of Watts, who were irritated after suffering years of economic and political isolation.

 

The rioters eventually spread across a 50-square-mile area of South-Central Los Angeles, looting stores, torching buildings and beating whites as snipers fired at police and firefighters. Finally, on August 16, with the assistance of thousands of National Guardsmen, order was restored. The five days of violence resulted in the deaths of 34 people, as well as the injuries of 1,032, the arrests of nearly 4,000, and the destruction of $40 million worth of property. The Watts riot foreshadowed the occurrence of the many rebellions in the following years, such as the 1967 Detroit riots, the Newark riots, and other outbreaks of violence.

 

Want to find out more about the Watts riots? Click here for more information, or click here for a video with rare footage from the rebellion.

August 10 - The Louvre Museum Opens

This Day in History: 10 August 2020

 

10 August 1793

 

227 years ago, today, the Louvre was opened as a public museum in Paris by the French revolutionary government, after more than two centuries as a royal palace. In 1546, the Louvre palace was built by King Francis I on the site of a 12^th century fortress. The King was a great art collector, and his palace was to serve as his royal residence. The work added was supervised by the architect Pierre Lescot, and even continued after Francis' death. Almost every subsequent French monarch extended the Louvre and its grounds, but the most additions were made by Louis XIII and Louis XIV. The Louvre ceased to be the main royal residence in 1682, when Louis XIV moved his court to Versailles.

 

During the Enlightenment, many in France began to call for a public display of royal collections. It was not until the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 that major progress was made in establishing a permanent museum. The collection at the Louvre grew quickly, with the French army adding items from conquered territory and nations in the Napoleonic wars. In the 1980s and 1990s, the museum underwent major remodelling, and modern museum amenities were added. The entire Louvre was finally devoted to museum purposes in 1993 when the wing occupied by the French ministry of finance was opened to the public. Today, the Louvre's collection is one of the richest in the world, with artwork and artifacts representative of 11,000 years.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the Louvre Museum? Click here for more information, or here for a video explaining 800 years of the Louvre's history.

August 9 - Atomic Bomb Dropped on Nagasaki

This Day in History: 9 August 2020

 

9 August 1945

 

75 years ago, today, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Japan by the United States. This time it was dropped on Nagasaki, resulting in Japan's unconditional surrender. The devastation seen at Hiroshima a few days prior was not enough to convince the Japanese War Council to accept the Potsdam Conference's demands for an unconditional surrender. Luckily, the United States had already planned to drop their second bomb on August 11 in case of such an event, but bad weather had the date pushed up. Early in the morning, a specially adapted bomber plane took off from Tinian Island and dropped the bomb, nicknamed 'Fat Man'.

 

Nagasaki was a ship building centre, so had the very industry intended for destruction. The explosion unleashed the force of 22,000 tons of TNT on the city, killing an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 people. The man responsible for organising the Manhattan Project, General Leslie R. Groves, estimated that another atomic bomb would be ready to use by August 17, but it was not necessary. The War Council still remained divided, but Emperor Hirohito, encouraged by two War Council members eager to end the war, met with the Council and expressed his worry at the likelihood of more Japanese deaths. The Emperor then gave his permission for Japan's unconditional surrender.

 

Want to find out more about the Nagasaki atomic bombing? Click here for more information, or here for more about the man who survived both atomic bombings.

August 8 - The Battle of Amiens

This Day in History: 8 August 2020

 

8 August 1918

 

102 years ago, today, the Battle of Amiens began. This was a series of offensive operations launched by the Allies against the Germans on the Western Front, during World War One. Allied generalissimo Ferdinand Foch had rejected the idea of a single decisive blow against the Germans, and instead favoured a series of limited attacks, in order to liberate the railway lines around Paris. The national commanders, John J. Pershing of the United States, Philippe Petain of France and Sir Douglas Haig of Britain, went along with this strategy, allowing each army to act as its own entity, striking individual blows instead of joining in one coordinated attack.

 

The German defensive positions at Amiens were outnumbered six to one by advancing Allied forces, and the Allies had penetrated German lines around the Somme by the end of the day, dubbed 'the black day of the German army'. Of the 27,000 German causalities, 12,000 had surrendered. The Allies at Amiens, however, failed to continue their success in the following days. The German army continued to fight on into the final months of the war, despite being faced with the momentum of the Allied summer offensive and being plagued by disorder and desertion within their troops, as well as rebellion on the home front.

 

Want to find out more about the Battle of Amiens? Click here for more information, or here for more about the final months of the war.

August 7 - The First Swim From the United States to the Soviet Union

This Day in History: 7 August 2020

 

7 August 1987

 

33 years ago, today, Lynne Cox faced the freezing waters of the Bering Strait as she became the first person to swim from the United States to the Soviet Union. Cox's swimming career had begun when she was just nine years old. Her parents shortly moved the family to California, in order for Lynne and her siblings to live near the ocean and have better swim coaching. She proved to be a natural at open-water swimming after swimming the 31-mile Catalina Channel, and swimming the English Channel in just under 10 hours at the age of 15, breaking the world record for both men and women.

 

By 1987, the Cold War was just beginning to relax when Cox decided to try to swim the Bering Strait. The Soviet Union, under the leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev, opened their border to her. She wore only a swimsuit in water just above freezing as she set off from Alaska. Cox, with a team of physiologists monitoring her, stayed in the water for just over 2 hours as she crossed the international dateline and reached the coast of the Soviet Union. The next year, while signing the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, Gorbachev referred to Cox's achievement and stated that, "she proved by her courage how close to each other our peoples live". Her swim is considered one of the most amazing cold-water swims in history.

 

Want to find out more about Lynne Cox's swimming achievement? Click here for more information, or here for more about her life.

August 6 - Atomic Bomb Dropped on Hiroshima

This Day in History: 6 August 2020

 

6 August 1945

 

75 years ago, today, the United States dropped the first atomic bomb in wartime on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Around 80,000 people were killed as a direct result of the blast, and another 35,000 were injured. By the end of the year, 60,000 would be dead from the effects of the fallout. The United States had been working on atomic weaponry since the beginning of the decade, after being warned that Nazi Germany was already conducting research into nuclear weapons. However, by the time the United States conducted the first successful test, Germany had already been defeated, but the war against Japan continued to rage.

 

The atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima immediately killed 80,000 people and thousands more would die from radiation poisoning in the following weeks. Three days later, another bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki, killing nearly 40,000 more people, leading to Japan's surrender. Historians have suggested the weapons had a two-pronged objective. First was to bring the war with Japan to a fast end, while sparing American lives. It has been also suggested that the second objective was to demonstrate the new weapon of mass destruction to the world, especially to the Soviet Union.

 

Want to find out more about the atomic bomb attack on Hiroshima? Click here for more information, or here for more on how the event initiated the Cold War.

August 5 - Marilyn Monroe is Found Dead

This Day in History: 5 August 2020

 

5 August 1962

 

58 years ago, today, Marilyn Monroe was found dead, lying on her bed, nude, with a telephone in one hand. Empty bottles of pills, that were prescribed to treat her depression, were found scattered across the room. Shortly after midnight, her maid, Eunice Murray, had noticed that Monroe's light was on, and called her psychiatrist when Marilyn remained unresponsive to her calls. After an investigation was conducted, Los Angeles police concluded that her death was caused by a self-administered overdose, and that the mode of death was most likely suicide.

 

When Marilyn was younger, her mother was emotionally unstable, so she was reared by a succession of foster parents and in an orphanage. She was married at 16 but was divorced a few years later. In 1944, she took up modelling, and in 1946, signed a short-term contract with 20^th Century Fox. Her acting career mainly took off in the early 50s, however, and she was celebrated for her charm and roles as a sex-symbol. In recent decades, there have been a number of conspiracy theories about her death. Most of these argue that she was murdered by John or Robert Kennedy, with whom she supposedly had love affairs, as they feared she would make these affairs public. Nevertheless, decades after her death, Monroe remains a major cultural icon.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Marilyn Monroe? Click here for more information, or click here for more about the conspiracy theories.

August 4 - The Bracero Program is Created

This Day in History: 4 August 2020

 

4 August 1942

 

78 years ago, today, the United States and Mexico signed the Mexican Farm Labour Agreement, creating the 'Bracero Program'. This program lasted until 1964 and was the largest guest-worker program in American history. It benefitted both farmers and labourers, but also produced many labour disputes, gave rise to the abuse of workers and other problems. The federal government had been previously worried that American entry into World War Two would deprive the southwest of much of its farm labour, but the program became an important part of the region's economy and outlasted the war.

 

The Bracero Program guaranteed workers many basic protections, but farm owners often failed to live up to these requirements. Housing and food was frequently well below standards, and wages were low and late. Many labourers were still fighting to receive the money that had been taken from their salaries years after the program had ended. The 60s and 70s also saw the rise of the United Farm Workers, a union that composed mainly of Mexicans that fought against the same inequalities as the laborers had faced. Today, migrant, Mexican labour continues to be a key part of the southwestern economy and a source of political and racial tension.

 

Want to find out more about the Bracero Program? Click here for more information, or here for more about Mexican immigration into the United States.

August 3 - The Execution of Sir Roger Casement

This Day in History: 3 August 2020

 

3 August 1916

 

104 years ago, today, Sir Roger Casement was executed for his role in Ireland's Easter Rising. He was an Irish Protestant who had served as a British diplomat during the early 20^th century. Casement won international acclaim after he exposed the illegal practise of slavery in the Congo and some parts of South Africa. Despite his Ulster Protestant roots, he became a passionate supporter of the Irish independence movement. He travelled to the United States after the outbreak of World War One, and then to Germany, in order to secure aid for an Irish uprising against the British rule, but they promised only limited aid.

 

In April, just shortly before the outbreak of the Easter Rising in Dublin, he was picked up by the British authorities very quickly. The rising had been suppressed by the end of the month, and the majority of its leaders had been executed. Casement was tried separately due to his honourable past, as he was knighted in 1911 by King George V, but was still found guilty of treason. Before and during his trial, the British government secretly circulated some excerpts from his journals, exposing his accounts of homosexuality. Given the societal norms of the time, and the illegality of homosexuality, support for Casement declined in some areas.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Roger Casement? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Easter Rising.

August 2 - The Death of President Harding

This Day in History: 2 August 2020

 

2 August 1923

 

97 years ago, today, President Warren G. Harding died from a stroke in a hotel in San Francisco, at the age of 58. He was returning from a presidential tour of Alaska and the West Coast, which many believe he embarked on to escape the rumours in Washington of corruption in his administration, especially in the departments of the Interior and Justice and in the Veterans Bureau. The embolism he died of was perhaps brought upon by anxiety over these political scandals about to explode in front of the public. The next morning, Vice President Calvin Coolidge was sworn in as president.

 

Harding had won the Republican presidential nomination in 1920, when he was a relatively unremarkable senator of Ohio. The party had deadlocked over several more prominent candidates. While running, he pledged a 'return to normalcy' policy after World War One, leading to his landslide victory in the presidential election. He promised to appoint a cabinet representing the 'best minds' in the country, but instead chose many clever men who held little sense of public responsibility. After Harding's death, President Coolidge had to respond to the public outrage over the Teapot Dome oil-leasing scandals, the fraudulent transactions in the scandalous departments, and reports of Harding's extramarital affairs.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of President Harding? Click here for more information, or here for more about Harding's scandals.