January 31 - First McDonald's in the USSR

This Day in History: 31 January 2020

 

31 January 1990

 

30 years ago, today, the Soviet Union opened their first McDonald's restaurant in Moscow, and several people immediately began to line up to pay their wages in fast food. As a symbol of capitalism, this was a sign that relations and ideals were changing in the Soviet Union, especially due to the immense positive response it gained from the Russians. An American journalist at the event described the Russian civilians at the scene being amazed at the "simple sight of polite shop workers…in this nation of commercial boorishness." However, a Soviet journalist had a different opinion, who stated that the restaurant was "the expression of America's rationalism and pragmatism toward food," and commented that the contrast in ideals was sad and challenging.

 

However, for the average Russian person, visiting the restaurant was less of a political change, and was more of an opportunity to enjoy the little pleasure in the disastrous, economic climate, and internal political madness. The introduction of the McDonald's restaurant was a small, but certain sign of a change on the horizon, which proved to be true, as two years later, the Soviet Union ceased to exist, as Gorbachev resigned as leader, and many Soviet satellite states declared their independence. As of late 2015, McDonald's had 492 locations in Russia.

 

Want to find out more about the significance of the first McDonald's restaurant in the communist Soviet Union? Click here for a video explaining the matter, and click here from a news report from the day.

 

January 30 - Execution of Charles I

This Day in History: 30 January 2020

 

30 January 1649

 

371 years ago, today, King Charles I died, executed for treason, in London. In 1625, he ascended to the throne after his father, James I, died, and in the first year of his reign, Charles had already offended his subjects. He did this as he married Henrietta Maria, a Catholic French princess, which his Protestant subjects did not approve of. In response to his political opposition, Parliament was dissolved on many occasions, and in 1629, Charles decided to rule completely without the help of Parliament. As a result, the first English Civil War broke out in 1642, in a power struggle between the King and Parliament.

 

On the side of the Parliamentarians, led by Oliver Cromwell, the Ironsides proved a formidable force as they achieved victory against the Royalist forces. In the Second English Civil War, Cromwell led the New Model Army, and helped end the Royalist invasion of Scotland, causing Charles to surrender to the Scottish army in 1646. Afterwards, he appeared in high court before his enemies, with a conviction of treason, and was sentenced to death, and earlier in the next year, he was beheaded. The monarchy was then abolished, and Cromwell led the new English Commonwealth, however, Cromwell died in 1658. The monarchy was then restored under Charles II, the son of Charles I.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of King Charles I? Click here for more information.

 

January 29 - Death of King George III

This Day in History: 29 January 2020

 

29 January 1820

 

200 years ago, today, King George III died, at the age of 82, ten years after his retirement from public life due to mental illness. 60 years prior, George succeeded his grandfather, George II, at the age of 20, as King of Great Britain and Ireland. He wanted to govern more directly than his grandfather had, but George III was unable to find any minister whom he could ensure his trust. This was until 1770, when Lord North was appointed as his chief minister, and so in this role, managed Parliament, and was ready to follow royal leadership. However, George's force against the American colonies at the time led to the outbreak of the American War for Independence.

 

England lost their most profitable colonies, which caused the opposition against King George to grow, and after William Pitt's rise to parliament as Prime Minister, George retired from active participation in government, with the exception of the intervention in major events. Unfortunately, in 1765, the King suffered a nervous breakdown, and experienced a longer mental illness in late 1788, suggested by many that the cause was the hereditary disease porphyria, a defect in the blood that, when not treated, can cause mental illness. He then spent the remainder of his life with his wife, Charlotte Sophia, and after his retirement, his son, the Prince of Wales, was named regent. Upon George's death, his son ascended to the throne as King George IV.

 

Want to read more about the life and death of King George III? Click here for more information.

 

January 28 - 'Challenger' Space Shuttle Explosion

This Day in History: 28 January 2020

 

28 January 1986

 

34 years ago, today, the space shuttle 'Challenger' lifted off from Florida, with Christa McAuliffe on board, on her way to become the first ordinary US citizen to visit space, after winning a competition that earned her a place among the crew of the 'Challenger'. Prior to this, Christa underwent months of shuttle training, but was required to wait 6 days due to the delayed countdown, because of weather and technical issues, but the shuttle finally lifted off on this day. Tragically, with hundreds watching from the ground and millions more on live television, the shuttle exploded. There were, unfortunately, no survivors, and this disaster was the first ever major shuttle accident.

 

President at the time, Ronald Reagan, appointed a special committee to discover what went wrong with 'Challenger', to prevent this from happening again in the future. The committee included former astronaut, Neil Armstrong, former test pilot, Chuck Yeager, and was led by former secretary of state, William Rogers. The investigation determined that the cause of the disaster was the failure of an 'O-Ring' seal in a rocket, which did not respond as expected, due to the cold temperatures at launch. This caused NASA to redesign many of their space shuttles, and no astronauts were sent into space for 2 years, before 'Discovery' was successfully launched. Another major space shuttle incident occurred in February 2003 when 'Columbia' disintegrated while re-entering the Earth's atmosphere, where all died.

 

Want to find out more about the tragic explosion of the space shuttle that shocked the world? Clickhere for a clip from live coverage (warning: disturbing), or clickhere for more information on the disaster.

 

January 27 - Holocaust Remembrance Day

This Day in History: 27 January 2020

 

27 January 1945

 

75 years ago, today, Soviet troops began to enter the Auschwitz concentration camp, and thus started to free the survivors of the horrendous network of the camps, marking this event as International Holocaust Remembrance Day. This action revealed to the world the atrocities that had been committed at these concentration camps throughout the Second World War. Auschwitz, in Poland, was actually a group of camps, that had been designated I, II and III, in addition to 40 smaller satellite camps. At Birkenau, at Auschwitz II, which had been established in October 1941, relatively around the start of the war, the SS, the special Nazi police force, had created a intricate, orchestrated killing ground that consisted of 300 prison barracks, four "bathhouses" used to gas prisoners, corpse cellars, and cremating ovens. As well as this, dreadful numbers of prisoners were also experimented on for medical purposes, carried out by camp doctor, Josef Mengele, nicknamed the "Angel of Death".

 

Since mid-January 1945, the Soviet Red Army had been advancing deeper into Poland, after having liberated Warsaw and Krakow. They began, afterwards, to head for Auschwitz, but the German Gestapo, the secret Nazi police, anticipated the Soviets arrival. In an attempt to destroy the evidence of their crimes, the Gestapo initiated a murder spree in the camps, shooting the sick prisoners and exploding the crematoria. The Red Army finally managed to break through, and there they encountered 648 corpses, and more than 7,000 starving survivors of the camp. They also discovered 6 storehouses filled with hundreds of thousands of dresses belonging to women, as well as men's suits and shoes, that the Germans did not have the time to burn.

 

Want to find out more about the liberation of Auschwitz that occurred near the end of the Second World War? Click here to listen to a podcast commemorating the 75^th anniversary, or click here to read more on what happened during the Soviet rescue. Or, click here to watch the ceremony marking the anniversary.

 

January 26 - Vote to Boycott Moscow Olympics

This Day in History: 26 January 2020

 

26 January 1980

 

40 years ago, today, the US Olympic Committee, at the request of President Jimmy Carter, voted to cancel or move the upcoming Moscow Olympics, after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan a month prior, orchestrated by Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev. This played a significant role in increasing the tension of the ongoing Cold War, as it was proof that even a competitive, yet friendly international competition of sports could be politicised. Although there was no official announcement of a US boycott of the Olympics, the vote left little room for optimism. 

 

Despite this, President Carter made it clear that if the Soviets did not withdraw from Afghanistan by February 20, the US would withdraw participants from the Moscow Olympics. A member of the Olympics Committee had also stated that the vote had been a request from Carter, to make it known to the Soviets that their aggression would not go unanswered. However, many of the US athletes were critical of the vote and ultimatum, believing that a sports competition was no place for politics. The Soviets ignored the Americans' warning, resulting in the US boycott of the Moscow Olympics. This was the first time in modern history of an American refusal of participation, and the Soviets only withdrew from Afghanistan almost a decade later.

 

Want to find out more about the tension built due to the Moscow Olympics? Click here for more information, or, to watch a video instead, click here.

 

January 25 - Death Sentence of Jiang Qing

This Day in History: 25 January 2020

 

25 January 1981

 

39 years ago, today, Jiang Qing, the widow of Chairman Mao, was sentenced to death, accused for her counter-revolutionary crimes, during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s. Beginning as an actress in a Communist theatre and in film, her marriage to the feared Chairman Mao was widely criticised, as Mao had divorced his previous wife, Ho Zizhen, while she lay on a bed in a Moscow hospital, after the Long March. His wife before that, Yang Kaihui, was killed by nationalists during the Chinese Civil War.

 

While married to Mao, Jiang was ordered to stay out of politics, so she did until the Cultural Revolution, criticising traditional Chinese opera, and Chinese art and literature's influence from the bourgeoise. She was made the first deputy head of the Cultural Revolution, which was an attempt from Mao to revolutionise the Chinese society, and Jiang proved successful in manipulating the media, and the Red Guard, the student radicals. The revolution was carried out through the use of terror and purges, which resulted in the deaths of thousands. Jiang faded from the public eye at the end of the revolution, but after her husband's death, she and three other radicals became known as the 'Gang of Four'. She was arrested, and faced trial, along with the three other members of the gang, being held responsible for provoking the bloodshed of the revolution. Jiang was found guilty and was sentenced to die, but the Chinese government later changed her sentence to a life imprisonment. In 1991, she was found in prison having died from suicide.

 

Want to find out more about the life and political actions of Jiang Qing? Click here for more details.

 

January 24 - Death of Churchill

This Day in History: 24 January 2020

 

24 January 1965

 

55 years ago, today, Winston Churchill died at the age of 90, unfortunately the third death of a historic figure written about here, on the blog, only this week. Born at Blenheim Place in 1874, Churchill is remembered most significantly as the British leader who guided Great Britain through the hardship of the Second World War. He joined the British Fourth Hussars in 1895 and for the next five years, had an experienced military career, but resigned in 1899 to focus on his literacy and political career. This paid off, as a year later, he was elected to Parliament as a Conservative MP from Oldham, but joined the liberals four years afterwards, and was appointed as Britain's first lord of the admiralty in 1911. In this position, he worked to prepare the British navy for the inevitable war.

 

When the second year of World War One came about, Churchill was held responsible for the failure of the Dardanelles and Gallipoli campaigns, and as a result was excluded from the war coalition government, causing his resignation, but returned to politics as a cabinet member under Lloyd George's government. After World War Two broke out, Churchill was called again to be the first lord of the admiralty, and shortly replaced Neville Chamberlain's ineffective leadership, as he became Prime Minister. Under Churchill, Britain first stood alone against Nazi Germany, but Churchill promised he would "never surrender", granting England the hope they needed to stay determined. Churchill then brilliantly formed an alliance with the United States president, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Soviet Union's dictator Joseph Stalin. However, after the war had concluded, Churchill resigned as Prime Minister after Clement Atlee's Labour party won the election, but again reclaimed leadership and his title as Prime Minister in 1951, before retiring in 1955, but still remaining in Parliament up until a year before his death, and was honoured with a state funeral.

 

Want to find out more about the life and achievements of Winston Churchill? Click here for more information, or to watch a film instead, 'Darkest Hour' retells Churchill's early days of Prime Minister, or 'Churchill' accounts Churchill in his days near to D-Day.

January 23 - First Female Medical Graduate

This Day in History: 23 January 2020

 

23 January 1849

 

171 years ago, today, Elizabeth Blackwell became the first woman ever to receive a medical degree, at a graduation ceremony in New York, given to her by the Geneva Medical College. Born in Bristol, she grew up with an abolitionist father, a brother who, along with his wife, were very active in the women's suffrage movement, and a younger sister, who also studied medicine. Elizabeth was inspired to become a doctor after a conversation with her dying friend revealed her situation had been worsened by the fact that all physicians were men. The thought of a woman in a medical career was seen as a joke to society, and even by the men who accepted her into Geneva Medical College, which in fact, happened out of a student vote, who voted in favor for her as a practical joke, leading to her enrollment in 1847. She was shunned at school, by the citizens of Geneva, and even by her professors, who complained that teaching her was a waste of time.

 

After graduating, Elizabeth set up a clinic for the poor in New York City, where she was met with a degree of opposition, but still continued to efficiently treat her patients. She then founded a hospital, the New York Infirmary for Women and Children, in 1857, and a year later, the institution was expanded to include a women's college to train nurses and doctors, which was the first of its kind in America. Later, she moved to London, and became a professor of gynecology at the School of Medicine for Women. Not only did Blackwell receive a medical degree and practice medicine, but she also contributed greatly to educating female doctors in America, a profession that was mainly dominated by men.

 

Want to find out more about the life and legacy of Elizabeth Blackwell? Clickhere for more information.

 

January 22 - Death of Queen Victoria

This Day in History: 22 January 2020

 

22 January 1901

 

119 years ago, today, Queen Victoria died, ending her 63-year reign, the longest in British history, and the Victorian era. Under her rule, she restored the respect towards the English monarchy, while expanding the British Empire. She came to the throne after the death of her uncle, King William IV, at the age of 18. After the death of her husband, she was influenced by Benjamin Disraeli, the leader of the Conservative Party, to strengthen the British Empire, and in 1876, Victoria received the title from him of the 'empress of India'. She also never properly immersed herself in the immense social and technological advances of her reign, and when she died, had 37 surviving great-grandchildren, giving her the second nickname of the 'grandmother of Europe'.

 

In 1839, her first cousin, Albert, visited the English court, and was proposed to by Victoria five days after. He accepted, and by the next year, they were married. Albert became a key influence in her life, as he became her private secretary. The couple established royal residence at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, and at Balmoral Castle in Scotland, becoming somewhat detached from London. Together, they had nine children, including the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII. In 1861, Albert died, and Victoria's grief was so great that she did not appear in public for three years. As well as this, she never fully got over the loss.

 

Want to find out more about the life of Queen Victoria, and the life during the Victorian era? Click here for information on the Victorian era, and here for the life of Queen Victoria.

January 21 - Death of Lenin

This Day in History: 21 January 2020

 

21 January 1924

 

96 years ago, today, Vladimir Lenin, the mastermind behind the Bolshevik Revolution, and the Soviet Union's first leader, died at the age of 54, after experiencing a brain haemorrhage. At the beginning of his political career, Lenin abandoned his law career to indulge in the study of Marxism, and to spark revolutionary activity among the Russian workers. Later, he was arrested and exiled to Siberia, before travelling to Western Europe and establishing the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party. The Bolsheviks were a party of professional revolutionaries, all seeking to overthrow the Tsarist rule in Russia.

 

In 1905, rebellion broke out across Russia, led by the workers, but it was not until 1917, when Russia became involved in World War I, that the real Communist revolution could begin. The Russian army garrison at Petrograd joined the Bolshevik cause, and Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. Lenin left his exile in Switzerland and crossed German enemy lines to arrive in Petrograd on April 16, 1917. Six months later, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, and Lenin became somewhat of a dictator. His government nationalised industry and distributed land, before bringing about the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Lenin's body was also embalmed and placed in a burial chamber, while Petrograd was renamed Leningrad in his honour. Joseph Stalin succeeded him as the leader of the Soviet Union.

 

Want to find out more about the life on Lenin? Click here to read more information, or to watch a video instead, click here.

 

January 20 - Iran Hostage Crisis Ends

This Day in History: 20 January 2020

 

20 January 1981

 

39 years ago, today, the Iran Hostage Crisis ended, minutes after Ronald Reagan is appointed as the 40^th President of the United States. This involved the releasing of 52 US captives that were being held at the US embassy in Tehran. The crisis had begun in November 1979, when militant Iranian students became outraged at the fact that the expelled Shah of Iran had received medical treatment in New York City, allowed by the US Government. As a result, the US embassy was seized, and the Ayatollah Khomeini, the political and religious leader of Iran, refused all appeals to release the hostages, even after the UN Security Council demanded an end to the crisis. Despite this, the Ayatollah began to release all non-US and all female and minority American captives two weeks after the seizure, under the basis that these people were those oppressed by the US government. 52 captives remained there for the next 14 months.

 

The President at the time, Jimmy Carter, was unable to resolve the crisis. In April 1980, he ordered a rescue mission, but this failed horribly. Eight military personnel were killed, and no hostages were saved. Three months after this, the former Shah died in Egypt of cancer, but the crisis continued, and Carter later lost his presidency to Ronald Reagan. Negotiations began, and on the day that Reagan was instituted to office, the hostages were released. Jimmy Carter flew to West Germany to greet these Americans after their release, on their way home. The crisis strengthened the prestige of the Ayatollah in Iran, and the power of the theocrats who opposed relations with the West. In addition, the crisis led to American economic sanctions against Iran, weakening ties even further between the countries.

 

Want to find out more about the events that unfolded during the Iran Hostage Crisis? Clickhere for more details, or to watch a video on the matter, click here.

 

January 19 - Indira Gandhi Becomes Prime Minister

This Day in History: 19 January 2020

 

19 January 1966

 

54 years ago, today, Indira Gandhi became Indian Prime Minister, marking India's first female head of government. However, soon after she became Prime Minister, she was challenged by the right wing of the Congress Party, meaning that in the next election, she only won with a narrow victory, but in 1971, won again with a remarkable re-election victory. In the same year, she ordered the invasion of Pakistan, in support of the creation of Bangladesh, which subsequently helped her gain even more popularity, and led her party to another victory the next year.

 

Over the next few years, she focused on the issues of increasing civil unrest, food shortages, inflation and regional disputes. Her administration used strong-arms tactics, and were therefore criticised, while Gandhi faced a national scandal for allegations of fixing the 1971 election. As a result, she was banned from politics for 6 years, so Gandhi retaliated by declaring a state of emergency throughout India, as she imprisoned thousands of political enemies and restricted freedoms in the country. During this period, men and women were forced to be sterilised as a means of controlling the population growth. In 1977, Gandhi and her party were removed from office, but her new party, the Congress (I) Party, won the 1980 election, and Gandhi was Prime Minister once again.

 

After this, New Delhi was asked by regional states for greater autonomy, causing many Sikhs to resort to violence, which Gandhi responded to with more violence, sending an Indian army to the Sikh base in the sacred Golden Temple. Angered, Sikh members of Gandhi's bodyguard gunned her down in her own home on October 31, 1984. She was succeeded by her son, Rajiv Gandhi.

 

Want to find out more about the life and political history of Indira Gandhi? Clickhere for more details.

 

January 18 - Paris Peace Conference

This Day in History: 18 January 2020

 

18 January 1919

 

101 years ago, today, in Paris, France, the world's most powerful people met to begin the peace negotiations to mark the end of the First World War. Leaders of the Allies, consisting of France, Great Britain, the United States, and Italy, gathered here to discuss the crucial decisions they would make over the next few months, however, Russia, another ally, was not invited as they had already concluded a peace treaty with the Central Powers in the spring of 1918. The US President at the time, Woodrow Wilson, wanted to make sure that Germany was not treated too harshly, as he fought for his idea of "peace without a victory". The Prime Minister of France, Georges Clemenceau, and the Prime Minister of Britain, David Lloyd George, argued against Wilson and wanted to punish Germany, as their weakness would justify the large costs of the war. Wilson later compromised, in order to express his desire of creating the League of Nations, an international peacekeeping organisation.

 

Any German representatives were excluded from the conference until May, four months later. When they arrived in Paris, they were presented with the draft of the Treaty of Versailles, which would later be signed in June. The Germans were extremely frustrated, because they had put their faith in Wilson's promises, and the treaty required for them to forfeit a great deal of territory, pay reparations, and accept sole blame for the war. In the decades after the treaty was eventually signed, anger and hatred towards the treaty developed in Germany, causing extremists, such as Adolf Hitler, to capitalise on these emotions and gain power. This was exactly what Woodrow Wilson had wanted to prevent, a second, devasting world war.

 

Want to find out more about the Paris Peace Conference? Click here for more details.

 

January 17 - First Divorce in Ireland

This Day in History: 17 January 2020

 

17 January 1997

 

23 years ago, today, the Republic of Ireland legally allowed a divorce to take place for the first time, following a referendum two years prior. This historic divorce was granted to a terminally ill man, who wished to marry his new partner, and was also a clear sign of the Catholic Church's decline of power over the Republic. Ireland is an overwhelming Catholic country, despite the fact that the Irish Constitution of 1937 forbade divorce and prohibited the state from adopting an official religion. The Church plays a large role in Irish public life, even by the standards of other Catholic countries, such as Italy, who had legalised divorce by 1970. The issue was put up by the Irish government in 1986 to a nationwide referendum, but 63.5% voted against. A law allowing legal separation was still passed in 1989.

 

However, another referendum was put forward in 1995, after the 'Rainbow Coalition' government came into power. Pope John Paul II and Mother Theresa endorsed the 'no' side, but the Church decided that it would not be a sin to vote 'yes'. As a result, the campaign gained a 'yes' majority, but hardly, acquiring 50.3% compared to 49.7%. This referendum legalised divorce in cases where couples had been separated for four years, and reforms such as the 2015 same-sex marriage legalisation took place after, in inspiration of Ireland's new modern views. 2018 also saw the legalisation of abortion, and just last year, in 2019, an amendment was passed that relaxed the requirements needed to have a legal divorce.

 

Want to find out more about the first man in Ireland to be allowed a divorce? Clickhere for more information.

Or to find out more about the history of divorce in Ireland, clickhere.

 

January 16 - Hitler Descends to His Führerbunker

This Day in History: 16 January 2020

 

16 January 1945

 

75 years ago, today, Adolf Hitler took up residence in his underground bunker, called theFührerbunker, in Berlin, Germany, where he would marry Eva Braun and commit suicide. This was an air raid shelter and had been part of a subterranean bunker complex. It was also the last of the Führer Headquarters used by Hitler in the Second World War. The shelter consisted of 18 small rooms, and as well, was fully self-sufficient, as it had its own water and electrical supply. The dictator retired to the bunker after deciding to stay in Berlin for the last great siege of the war, but left only rarely, and spent most of the time micromanaging what was left of his German defenses, while also entertaining Nazi colleagues, such as Hermann Goering and Heinrich Himmler. At his side during his time in the bunker was his partner, Eva Braun and his dog, the Alsatian, Blondi.

A few months later, on April 29, Hitler married Eva while in the bunker. The two had met while Eva was an assistant to Hitler's official photographer. She spent time with Hitler out of the public eye but had no visible influence on Hitler's role as a political leader. Eva was still loyal to Hitler and provided him with somewhat of a domestic life. Less than 40 hours after the two were wed, the couple committed suicide. Hitler had learned of the death of his Italian ally and fellow dictator, Benito Mussolini, while fearing the Soviet Red Army that was closing in on his location. He had received cyanide capsules from Heinrich Himmler, but did not trust the capsules contents, so tested the pills onBlondi, who died as a result. However, Hitler had already planned to haveBlondi killed so she did not fall into the hands of the Russians. The two newly-weds then both swallowed the capsules themselves, and for good measure, Hitler shot himself with his pistol.

 

Want to read more about the Führerbunker, and the events that took place there during the war and after? Clickhere for more information, orhere.

 

January 15 - Coronation of Queen Elizabeth I

This Day in History: 15 January 2020

 

15 January 1559

 

461 years ago, today, Elizabeth Tudor, the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, is crowned Queen Elizabeth I at Westminster Abbey in London, two months after the death of her half-sister, Queen Mary I. She was welcomed into the city on the evening of the coronation ceremony, with a strong Protestant favour. The two sisters, both daughters of Henry VIII, had a hectic relationship during Mary's reign, as Mary was brought up Catholic and enacted pro-Catholic laws. She also tried to restore papal supremacy in England, which was something her father had ceased. This caused a Protestant rebellion to break out, and Mary imprisoned Elizabeth, who was a Protestant, in the Tower of London. During Elizabeth's reign, she survived many Catholic plots, and her ascension was met with approval from most lords. Elizabeth also revoked Mary's pro-Catholic legislation and established a permanent Protestant Church of England.

 

During the reign of Elizabeth, she introduced policies that would strengthen England's Protestant allies, but was opposed by the Pope, who refused to recognise her legitimacy, and also by Spain, who was a Catholic nation and at the height of their power. This led to an English-Spanish rivalry, and in 1588, the Spanish invaded England with their Spanish Armada, the greatest naval force in the world at the time, which was destroyed by storms and the English navy. Elizabeth also became known as the 'virgin queen', as she has a reluctance to marry. By her death in 1603, England was a major world power, and Queen Elizabeth passed into history as one of England's greatest and well-known monarchs.

 

Want to find out more about the background, preparations and events that took place at Elizabeth's coronation? Click here for more details.

 

January 14 - Treaty of Madrid

This Day in History: 14 January 2020

 

14 January 1526

 

494 years ago, today, the Treaty of Madrid was signed, between the Hapsburg emperor, Charles V, and his prisoner, Francis I, King of France, who had been captured during the Battle of Pavia almost a year earlier. Charles V had lacked the funds necessary to pay for the war, and so decided to not marry into the House of Tudor, despite the fact he had promised Henry VIII, and so wanted to marry Isabella of Portugal, as she would bring a larger dowry. As a result, the Duke of Bourbon and Henry planned to invade and partition France.

 

The King of France gave over his lands in Italy, Flanders, Artois and Tournai, as well as parts of France to Charles V, and contracted the marriage of his sister to Charles. The final signing was completed in Madrid on this day, and Francis was released, and thus was allowed to return to France. As he was crossing the border, he announced his refusal to ratify the treaty, and so entered the League of Cognac, with the intent to dethrone Charles. In May, the War of the League of Cognac was launched by Francis and the Pope in an attempt to reclaim the lost French territory, and Henry VIII would not join until 1527. This war was unsuccessful, but Francis and his successor, Henry II, continued to assert their claims to Milan through the Italian Wars.

 

Want to find out more about the Treaty of Madrid, and the Italian War that it was part of? Clickhere for more details.

 

January 13 - Sole Survivor Escapes Afghan Forces

This Day in History: 13 January 2020

 

13 January 1842

 

178 years ago, today, British army doctor, William Brydon, reached the British sentry post in Jalalabad, Afghanistan, after being the sole survivor of an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force, who were massacred in their retreat from Kabul. The Afghans had committed a horrifying massacre in the Khyber Pass, where they gave the Anglo-Indians and their camp followers no quarter. At this time, Britain had a goal of protecting its Indian colony from Russia, and so tried to establish authority and power in Afghanistan as they attempted to replace Emir Dost Mohammad with a former emir, known to be sympathetic towards the British.

 

This obvious interference with Afghanistan triggered the outbreak of the first Anglo-Afghan War in 1839, but Dost Mohammad surrendered to the British in 1840 after Kabul was captured. However, the British had no choice but to withdraw after an Afghan revolt in Kabul broke out, and the withdrawal began on January 6, but bad weather delayed any progress. Swarms of Afghans then attacked the column, led by Mohammad's son, and those who were not killed were later massacred by Afghan soldiers, totalling in 4,500 soldier deaths and 12,000 camp followers. The only man to escape to recount the details of the event wasDr. William Brydon.

 

Another British force later invaded Kabul a year later in retaliation, burning a portion of the city, and in the same year, the war ended. In 1857, Emir Dost Mohammad, who had been restored to power in 1843, signed an alliance with the British, however, the Second Anglo-Afghan War began in 1878, which lasted for two years, resulting in Britain winning control of Afghanistan's foreign affairs.

 

Want to find out more about William Brydon and his escape? Clickhere for more information, or click here to watch a video on the event.

 

January 12 - Haiti's Devastating Earthquake

This Day in History: 12 January 2020

 

12 January 2010

 

10 years ago, today, Haiti, the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, experienced a massive earthquake, that devasted the country, however, they gained an abundance of support from the globe, yet still have not been able to fully recover since. In the past, Haiti has had a history of other destructive earthquakes, such as in 1751, 1770, 1842 and 1946. The country had the knowledge from seismologists that an earthquake was foreseen, but the poverty throughout the nation meant that buildings and emergency services were not prepared to handle the effects of a natural disaster. The earthquake struck before 4pm and was felt as far away as Cuba and Venezuela, with the epicentre of the quake being 16 miles from the capital, Port-au-Prince. Eight aftershocks were felt the same day, not comparing to the 52 that would follow over the next two weeks.

 

This was a catastrophe for Haiti: all of the capital's hospitals sustained serious damage, as well as it's airport and seaport, being concluded as inoperable. Telecoms and major roads were also greatly affected, and almost 300,000 buildings were damaged beyond repair. Estimates of deaths caused by the earthquake are still incalculable, but some estimates are around 40 to 50,000, however, the Haitian government expresses this number as over 316,000. Responses from other countries included the Dominican Red Cross, who provided emergency supplies and airlifts to Dominican hospitals, and nations from every continent gave money, supplies and manpower. Haiti experienced an overwhelming humanitarian response, but the crippled infrastructure made the delivery of aid very difficult, and the situation was classified as an emergency six months after the earthquake. A million people began to live in tents, and an outbreak of cholera in the following October made matters a lot worse.

 

Want to read more about the horrific event that hindered the already deprived Haiti? Click here for more details.

 

January 11 - Announcement of Smoking and Cancer Link

This Day in History: 11 January 2020

 

11 January 1964

 

56 years ago, today, American Surgeon General Luther Terry released his report announcing the definitive link between smoking and cancer. He intentionally chose to release the report on this day, which was a Saturday, to limit the immediate effects on the stock market. This link had been suspected previously, as anecdotal evidence had always pointed to the negative health effects of smoking, as well as the fact that 1930s physicians had noticed an increase in lung cancer cases. Medical studies published in Great Britain in the late 1940s were the first to raise serious concerns of the link. After this, cigarette companies in America spent much of the next decade protesting to keep smoking legal, advertising reduced levels of tar and nicotine.

 

Terry commissioned the report in 1962 and two years later, he released his findings, titled 'Smoking and Health', on this day, stating the conclusive link between smoking and heart and lung cancer in men, and stated the same link was likely true in women, although they smoked at a lower rates. This news was major, but not surprising. Tobacco companies spent millions and were largely successful in stopping anti-smoking laws until the 1990s. Studies have shown that smoking decreased by roughly 11% between 1965 and 1985 after the publication of the report, and Ireland was the first country in the world to introduce a total smoking ban in 2004.

 

Want to find out more about studies in the 20^th century that helped gain popularity to the US Stop-Smoking Movement? Click here for more details.

 

January 10 - First UN Meeting

This Day in History: 10 January 2020

 

10 January 1946

 

74 years ago, today, the first General Assembly of the United Nations was held, comprising of 51 nations, such as China, Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. This was held at Westminster Central Hall in London, and one week later, the U.N. Security Council also met for the first time, establishing its rules of procedure, in Church House, Westminster. Later, on January 24, the General Assembly produced its first resolution: a measure calling for only peaceful uses of atomic energy, and the elimination of atomic and other weapons of mass destruction. The League of Nations, the first worldwide organisation wanting world peace, formally dissolved on 18 April, and transferred its mission to the United Nations.

 

Two years prior, at the Dumbarton Oaks conference in Washington D.C, the foundations for an international post-war organisation to maintain peace and security was laid by the Allies. The organisation was to possess much more authority over members than the League of Nations, which had failed to prevent World War Two. In April 1945, many celebrations of victory in Europe were about to start, while delegations from the 51 nations gathered in San Francisco to draft the United Nations Charter. On June 26, the document was signed, and on October 24 it was formally ratified by the five members of the Security Council, and a majority of other signatories.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the UN? Click here for more details.

January 9 - Christopher Columbus Mistakes Manatees For Mermaids

This Day in History: 9 January 2020

 

9 January 1493

 

527 years ago, today, Christopher Columbus mistook three manatees as three mermaids as he sailed near the Dominican Republic, beginning his adventure six months earlier after he set off from Spain to explore the Atlantic Ocean, hoping to find a route to Asia, but instead, he found the Americas. He described them as "not half as beautiful as they are painted", as mermaids in folklore were typically half-female, half-fish creatures, having a woman's head but a fishtail instead of legs. They were meant to reside in the ocean, and some legends even said they could take on a human shape and marry mortal men, sounding a lot like the plot in the 1989 film 'The Little Mermaid'. Mermaids also are closely linked to sirens, another mythological creature, which are part-woman, part-bird, who live on islands and sing songs to seduce sailors and lure them to their death.

 

Other sightings of mermaids by sailors throughout history were most likely also manatees, dugongs or Steller's sea cows, which are now extinct. Manatees are slow moving mammals, with human-like eyes, and tails like that of a mermaid. They typically weigh 800 to 1,200 pounds as adults and are 10 to 12 feet long. As well as this, they consume plants, have a slow metabolism and can only survive in warm water. Sadly, even though they have no natural predators, they are an endangered species, and in the US, many of them die or are injured due to boat collisions.

 

Want to read more about Columbus' slight error of identification, and how manatees inspired many mermaid legends? Clickhere for more information.

 

The Situation Between the US and Iran - January 8, 2020

January 8, 2020 – What is happening between the United States and Iran? Is this the beginning of World War Three? – By Piper Hedges

 

5 days ago, on January 3, 2020, the assassination of the Head of the Revolutionary Guard's elite Quds force, and architect of Iranian policy, Qasem Soleimani, took place, through a drone strike at Baghdad airport. This was carried out with the intent of taking out Soleimani, as he was deemed as a terrorist by the US, allegedly being responsible for the deaths of hundreds of American troops and plotting immediate attacks against them. Iran then vowed "severe revenge" upon the US for his death, while millions of Iranians joined the streets for the funeral of the commander. The death of such a significant figure to the Iranians caused tensions between the two countries to soar, raising the fear, by many, of a third world war.

 

Last night, at around 22:30, more than a dozen missiles were launched from Iran, striking two US air bases in Irbil and Al Asad in Iraq, coming soon after the burial of Soleimani, and just hours before a Ukrainian airliner crashed in Iran, shortly after take-off, killing all those aboard. However, there is no evidence that the two are linked, but several airlines have announced, due to rising tension, they will be avoiding both Iranian and Iraqi airspaces.

 

Since this, US President Donald Trump has stated that no US or Iraqi lives were lost, and the bases only suffered minimal damage. As well as this, Trump commented on other important messages, one of them being de-escalation, stating that Iran was "standing down", and did not threaten an immediate US response, saying that even though they have a large amount of equipment and militia, "it does not mean we have to use it". As well as this, he emphasised to other nations involved in the 2015 nuclear agreement, the JCPOA, to also withdraw as the US did previously. Finally, Trump called upon other NATO countries to "become much more involved in the Middle East process", a possible signal that the US is growing tired of its role in the Middle East. After this speech from Trump, it hopefully appears as though the situation will now be relying on diplomatic discussions, and everything depends on how events unfold throughout the coming days and weeks.

 

To follow live updates on this ongoing event, click here for The Guardian's live feed.

 

 

January 8 - President H.W. Bush Vomits on Japan's Prime Minister

This Day in History: 8 January 2020

 

8 January 1992

 

28 years ago, today, President George H.W. Bush vomited on the Prime Minister of Japan,Kiichi Miyazawa. This occurred when Bush attended a dinner hosted by the Prime Minister, in honour of his state visit. Bush was 67 at the time, and even played doubles tennis with the Emperor of Japan and his son that morning. However, during the dinner, Bush fell ill; he leaned forward, fell to his side, and vomited into the lap of the Prime Minister. Bush then fainted, causing his wife, Barbara, his aides and members of the Secret Service to attend to him, but was revived shortly, before quickly leaving and apologising.

 

It was then later stated by doctors that the President had suffered acute gastroenteritis and felt fine after taking an anti-nausea drug. This event received massive attention in the US, with Saturday Night Live creating a parody out of it, while CNN also received a call from an Idaho man claiming to be Bush's physician and that he had died. This man, James Edward Smith, was subsequently questioned by the Secret Service and hospitalised by a private mental health facility for evaluation. The President's challenger, Bill Clinton, also likely benefitted, as this reinforced his relative youth and vitality to the public, which Bush did not have.

 

This event also entered the Japanese lexicon, as the phrase "bushuru" roughly translates to "to pull a Bush", which became a popular slang term for vomiting.

 

To watch a video of the incident, click here. To read more about the embarrassing occurrence, click here for more information.

 

January 7 - President Clinton's Impeachment Senate Trial Begins

This Day in History: 7 January 2020

 

7 January 1999

 

21 years ago, today, the impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton began in the Senate, after being charged with lying under oath and obstructing justice. The scandal that started this begun as well-regarded lawyer, Kenneth Starr, began to plague Clinton's presidency with attacks, and his investigation into Clinton was initially centred upon his pre-presidency financial dealings. This looked at potential wrongdoings by him and his wife, Hillary Clinton, in real estate developments, but found no evidence of this. However, accusations of sexual harassment began against Clinton by Paula Jones in Arkansas, and during the case, both former White House intern, Monica Lewinsky, and the president testified that they had not had a sexual relationship together. Despite this, Lewinsky and Clinton both admitted to Starr and his investigators that they had had an affair.

 

Afterwards, Starr submitted his report to the House Judiciary Committee, claiming the evidence of 11 impeachable offenses, among of which were perjury, obstruction of justice, witness-tampering, and abuse of power. The formal vote from the House was held on December 19, making Clinton the second president in history to be impeached. The Senate trial began on this day but was voted for five weeks later. The prosecution required a two-thirds majority to convict Clinton but failed to achieve any strong majority, and the charge of perjury was rejected, however, the Senate was split 50-50 on the charge of obstruction of justice.

 

Want to read more about President Clinton's impeachment? Clickhere for more details.

 

January 6 - Harold II Crowned King of England

This Day in History: 6 January 2020

 

6 January 1066

 

954 years ago, today, Harold Godwinson, the head of the most powerful noble family in England, was crowned King Harold II, after the death of Edward the Confessor. On Edward's deathbed, he supposedly appointed Harold as the royal heir, however this claim was later disputed against by William, Duke of Normandy, and cousin of the King. The Witan, the political institution of the time, selected Harold to succeed the next day after the death of Edward, and his coronation followed on the 6^th January, on this day, most likely held at Westminster Abbey. Some Norman sources show this coronation as being rather sudden, perhaps due to the fact that all the nobles in the land were present at Westminster already for the feast of the Epiphany.

 

The new King, however, grew concerned with King Harald III, Hardraade of Norway, and Harold's brother, Tostig's, plans for England. In response, Harold rallied his forces for an invasion against William, but Tostig launched a series of raids instead, which forced King Harold to leave. Later, in September, Tostig joined forces with King Harald III and invaded England, with Harold meeting them at Stamford Bridge on the 25^th, where he defeated and killed them both. However, on October 14, Harold met William at the Battle of Hastings, and the king was killed, possibly having been shot through the eye with an arrow. William the Conqueror was crowned the first Norman king of England on Christmas Day.

 

Want to find out more about the life of King Harold II? Clickhere for more details.

 

January 5 - Pope Forbids Henry VIII to Remarry

This Day in History: 5 January 2020

 

5 January 1531

 

489 years ago, today, Pope Clement VII forbade King Henry VIII from remarrying, after he sent a letter to the King, threatening the penalty of excommunication, meaning that Henry would have been cast out of the communication of the church. King Henry was trying to break off his marriage to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain and the widow of Henry's dead brother, Arthur. He ignored the Pope's warning, and went on to marry Anne Boleyn, which lead to his excommunication as the Pope had warned. The request to remarry is most likely due to the fact that Catherine could not produce a legitimate heir, so Henry searched for a way to end the marriage, in a way to not go against his Catholic faith. The King was a devote Catholic, and even was a known opponent of the Protestant Reformation, and earned the title of Defender of the Faith from Pope Leo X.

 

Emissaries were sent to the Pope in an attempt to have his marriage with Catherine annulled, but Pope Clement had no intention of this. Clement was also somewhat a prisoner to Charles V at the time, and so was powerless to stand in Charles' way. However, Henry was already charmed by Anne Boleyn, and decided excommunication was a fair price to pay for the independence from the Pope, as well as the chance to father an heir. So, in order to marry Anne secretly in 1532, Henry banished Catherine from his court, and in doing so, altered the course of Christian and European history. He then issued a line of decrees that removed his kingdom from papal rule, ending the Catholic Church supremacy, and creating the Church of England, so Henry and his successors no longer answered to the Pope.

 

Want to find out more about how Henry's divorce changed Catholicism in England? Click here for more details.