December 31 - The British East India Company is Chartered

This Day in History: 31 December 2019

 

31 December 1600

 

419 years ago, today, the British East India Company was chartered by Queen Elizabeth I, in hope to break the Dutch monopoly of the spice trade to modern-day Indonesia. In the East India Company's first few decades, it made far less progress in the East Indies than in actual India. It gained unmatched trade privileges from India's emperors, and by the 1630s, abandoned its East Indies operations to concentrate on Indian textiles and Chinese tea. Later, in the early 18^th century, the company was under the influence of British imperialism, as it intervened more in Indian and Chinese politics. As well as this, the company had its own military, which defeated its French rival, the French East India Company in 1752, and the Dutch in 1759.

 

A few years after this, in 1772, Britain's government passed the Regulating Act in an attempt to rein in the company, causing the company's possessions in India to be managed by a British governor, while it also lost political and economic independence. The company's trade monopoly was ended by parliamentary acts in 1813, and in 1834 was made into a managing agency for the British government of India. 23 years later, a revolt by Indian soldiers from the Bengal army of the company caused an uprising against Britain's rule in India, and after the Indian Mutiny was crushed, the British government acquired direct control over India, and in 1873, the East India Company was dissolved. 

 

Want to find out more about the British East India Company that lasted for many decades? Clickhere for more details.

 

December 30 - Formation of the USSR

This Day in History: 30 December 2019

 

30 December 1922

 

97 years ago, today, the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was officially established. This contained a confederation of countries including Russia, Belorussia, Ukraine and the Transcaucasia Federation (now known as the Georgian, Azerbaijan and Armenian republics). The USSR was also known as the Soviet Union, and was the successor to the Russian Empire, while also being the first country in the world to be founded off of Marxist socialism. The USSR came to be due to the efforts of Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik Party during the Russian Civil War and the Russian Revolution that came before it. The Bolsheviks were comprised of workers and soldiers, and the USSR had all their levels of government controlled by the party. Industry in the Soviet state was also owned and managed by the state, and the farming land was divided into collective farms, also ran by the state.

 

Throughout the 20^th century, after it was established, the Soviet Union, although having less-than-wealthy beginnings, grew into one of the world's superpowers, and eventually had 15 republics that made up the Union, adding Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Latvia,  Lithuania, and Estonia. The Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991, following the collapse of its communist government under the rule of Mikhail Gorbachev.

 

Want to find out more on how the USSR came to be and its history after that? Click here for more details.

 

December 29 - Most Devastating Attack During The Blitz

This Day in History: 29 December 2019

 

29 December 1940

 

79 years ago, today, London suffered its most devastating air raid, as part of the Blitz, when the Germans firebombed the city with high explosive bombs, causing hundreds of fires, but firefighters still managed to save much of the city. The Second World War was only four months old at this point, and the aerial conflict had been predicted by Prime Minister Winston Churchill previously in the year. During preparations for Adolf Hitler's Operation Sealion, the invasion of Britain, he ordered that the Royal Air Force must be eliminated, so the German Luftwaffe made the RAF's destruction its first priority, bombing aircraft bases and communication networks. However, by accident, in late August, a German formation dropped bombs on London instead, and in retaliation, the RAF bombed Berlin. As a result, Hitler vowed to destroy London and its people's spirit.

 

The event resulted in over 50,000 casualties, and many buildings were destroyed, but it gave the RAF time to rebuild, and thus went on to dominate the skies, forcing Hitler to abandon his plans. As well as this, Hitler failed miserably to break the Londoner's spirits, as they maintained their composure. Almost half a year later, the air raids ceased, as the Germans instead started to mass near the USSR border. Britain denied the Germans an easy and quick victory and deprived them of forces to use in their invasion of the USSR. The outcome of the Blitz significantly changed the course of the Second World War. After the events, photos emerged of St. Paul's Cathedral standing unharmed amid the smoke and flames, symbolising to many Britain's undefeatable spirit.

 

Want to find out more about the most devastating attack on London during the Blitz? Clickhere for more details.

 

December 28 - Worst European Earthquake

This Day in History: 28 December 2019

 

28 December 1908

 

111 years ago, today, the worst European earthquake ever recorded occurred in the Straits of Messina in southern Italy, devastating 90% of the buildings in the cities of Messina and Reggio di Calabria. This earthquake struck at 5:20am without any warning, meaning most people were at home in bed, rather than in the safety of the streets of fields, and events that followed killed an estimated 100,000 people. The main shock of the earthquake registered a magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale, and was followed by a deadly tsunami that washed over the coastal towns and cities.

 

The towns affected by the earthquake, Messina and Reggio di Calabria, had cut telegraph lines and damaged railway lines, which hindered relief efforts. To make things worse, the earthquake was followed by hundreds of small tremors over the next few days, which destroyed many of the few remaining buildings, and injured or killed rescuers. Two days after the quake, on December 30, King Victor Emmanuel III arrived aboard the battleship Napoli in order to inspect the calamity, while rains fell on the devastated cities. This forced the survivors to take shelter in caves, shacks, and whatever they could find. As well as this, sailors could hardly recognise the shoreline, as long stretches of the coast had shrunk into the Messina Strait.

 

Want to find out more about this deadly earthquake and the tsunami that followed? Clickhere for more details.

 

December 27 - Sea Gem Oil Rig Collapses

This Day in History: 27 December 2019

 

27 December 1965

 

54 years ago, today, Britain's Sea Gem oil rig, the first offshore drilling platform, collapsed, resulting in the deaths of four men, and nine of the 32 crew are still missing. The accident occurred as the crew were in the process of moving the rig onto the water's surface for it to float to the new site. However, when the rig was lowered, two of its ten leg's gave way and broke, and the rig capsized, causing equipment and people to slide off into the cold water of the North Sea. Men were also seen jumping into the sea, stained red with fuel, and clinging onto wreckage.

 

Unfortunately, the radio hut was among the equipment lost in the sea, meaning that an emergency signal was never sent out. Despite this, the nearby British ship, theBalltrover, observed the incident, and the crew onboard sent out emergency signals and began to help rescue the oil rig's crew. TheLeconfield-based RAF helicopter also helped, and rescued three men, and those rescuing commented that by the time they arrived, only one leg of the rig was visible. Since the accident, several changes have been made to improve the safety of oil rigs, such as the use of a stand-by boat, to rescue crews if future accidents were to occur. Further investigation and inquiry towards the collapse concluded that metal fatigue in the suspension system was also to blame for the incident.

 

Want to find out more about the Sea Gem oil rig and it's unfortunate end? Clickhere for more details.

 

December 26 - The First Kwanzaa

This Day in History: 26 December 2019

 

26 December 1966

 

53 years ago, today, the first ever Kwanzaa was celebrated in Los Angeles, California, under the instructions of Maulana Karenga, the chair of Black Studies at California State University.Kwanzaa is a seven-day holiday, with African origins, created by Maulana to celebrate African American families, cultures and communities. In 1965, a riot broke out in Watts, a mainly black neighbourhood in Los Angeles, which resulted in 34 deaths and 1,000 injuries. Maulana was disturbed by the ruins and tried to find a way to help overcome the despair felt from the riot. He founded Us, a black cultural organisation, and started to look to Africa for practises and concepts to empower the US' African communities. From his search, he was inspired by Africa's harvest celebrations, and decided to create a nonreligious holiday to emphasise the importance of family and community, while at the same time giving fellow African Americans a chance to explore their cultural identities, and thus, Kwanzaa was born.

 

Kwanzaa was designed to incorporate different harvest celebrations, such as those of the Ashanti and the Zulu, and the name means 'first fruits' in Swahili. Families celebrateKwanzaa in their own, unique ways, but traditional celebrations include songs, dances, African drums, storytelling, poetry and meals. On each of the seven nights, the family gathers, and a child lights one of the candles. Afterwards, one of the seven principles of the Nguzo Saba is discussed, and these include values of the African culture that contribute to the building of community among African Americans. The values include unity, self-determination, collective work and responsibility, economic cooperation, purpose, creativity, and faith. Kwanzaa is celebrated by millions of Africans across the United States, and also the world.

 

Want to find out more about Kwanzaa? Clickhere for more details.

 

December 25 - The Christmas Truce

This Day in History: 25 December 2019

 

25 December 1914

 

105 years ago, today, the 'Christmas Truce' was made on the battlefields of World War One between British and German troops, meaning that instead of fighting, the soldiers exchanged gifts and played football. The soldiers ceased their fires, and began to sing Christmas carols, and some soldiers from other countries even head brass bands joining the Germans in their singing. In the morning, many of the German soldiers came out from their trenches and called out 'Merry Christmas' in their enemies' native languages. The Allies first thought it was a trick, but seeing the Germans unarmed made them also climb out of their trenches and shake hands with their enemies.

 

The soldiers exchanged presents of cigarettes and plum puddings, sang carols and Christmas songs, and even played a friendly game of football. When the truce broke out, the leaders of the armies were horrified, and some soldiers may have been punished for fraternisation. This Christmas Truce came only 5 months after the war started and was one of the last examples of enemies becoming friendly during warfare. At the beginning of the war, most soldiers had hoped the fighting would be quickly over and that they would be reunited with their families for Christmas. Despite this, in the next year of war, the conflict became more severe with more bloodshed and technological advances, so a repetition of this Christmas Truce became impossible.

 

Merry Christmas everyone! I hope everyone has an amazing day while spending it in a more joyous situation than these soldiers did. To find out more about the hope-filling Christmas Truce, clickhere for more details.

 

December 24 - Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

This Day in History: 24 December 2019

 

24 December 1979

 

40 years ago, today, the Soviet Union attacked Afghanistan, wanting to uphold the Soviet-Afghan Friendship Treaty of 1978. In the early hours, the Soviets began a large military airlift into Kabul, and within a few days had secured it, after facing a resistance from the Afghan army. Three days later, the Marxist Babrak Karmal was instituted in as Afghanistan's new head of government, as Soviet forces entered Afghanistan from the north. However, they were met with more resistance when they advanced into the countryside, as they met the mujahidin, who saw the Christian and atheist Soviets as defying Islam and their traditional culture, and proclaimed jihad, a holy war, thus gaining support of the Islamic world. They employed guerrilla tactics against their enemies, meaning they would attack or raid quickly, then disappear and hide, using whatever weapons they could find from the Soviets, or whatever the US would provide them.

 

In 1987, the US introduced shoulder-launched anti-aircraft missiles, which allowed the mujahidin to shoot down Soviet planes regularly and efficiently. When the new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, came to power, he decided to end this war, as he saw no victory in sight, so began to withdraw Soviet forces in 1988. The Afghanistan invasion marked the end of a period of improving relations in the Cold War, known as détente, and, as well as this, the SALT II arms treaty was also halted, causing the US to restart arming themselves. The Soviets never recovered from the public relations and financial losses, which also led to the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. In addition, the war created a breeding ground for terrorism and the rise of famous terrorist, Osama bin Laden. 

 

Want to find out more about the Soviet-Afghan Friendship Treaty? Click here for more details.

Want to find out more about détente? Click here for more details.

Want to find out more about the SALT II treaty? Click here for more details.

 

Happy Christmas Eve everyone! 😊

 

December 23 - Vincent van Gogh's Ear

This Day in History: 23 December 2019

 

23 December 1888

 

131 years ago, today, Painter Vincent van Gogh cut off his left ear while suffering from severe depression, in Arles, France. He would later document this in the painting 'Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear'. Van Gogh was born Dutch and had a nervous personality as he worked unsuccessfully at an art gallery, and then as a preacher. When he was 27, he began his artistic career, and one work from this period, 'The Potato Eaters' reflects his melancholic experiences with the peasants and the miners. In 1886, he moved to Paris to be with his younger brother, Theo, an art dealer who supported his brother with finance and with introductions to many other artists that, over time, would influence van Gogh's own art style by using more colour.

 

In 1888, he rented a house in Arles to be less of a burden on his brother and hoped to start an artists' colony. Here, van Gogh painted vivid scenes of the countryside and still-life's, shown by his famous sunflower series. Artist Paul Gauguin came to stay with him for a while, and the two began to work together, although tensions started to develop. On this day, van Gogh threatened Gauguin with a knife in a spiral of dementia but turned it on himself and cut off his ear lobe. Supposedly, afterwards, he wrapped up the ear and handed it to a prostitute nearby, and was hospitalised, and checked into a mental institution for a year. But, while he was there, he varied between spurs of madness and creativity, producing some of his best works. In 1890, van Gogh moved to Auvers-sur-Oise and was plagued by despair and loneliness, causing him to shoot himself only two months later, and died shortly after, at the age of 37. Nowadays, van Gogh is seen by many as an artistic genius, and his masterpieces are practically priceless, but when he was alive, he only sold one painting and was constantly faced with mental and psychological difficulty.

 

Want to find out more about one of the most famous painters, Vincent van Gogh's, life? Clickhere for more details.

December 22 - The First Christmas Tree Lights

This Day in History: 22 December 2019

 

22 December 1882

 

137 years ago, today, the first strings of Christmas tree lights were created. This was crafted by Edward H. Johnson, an associate of famous inventor Thomas Edison, who was the vice president of the Edison Electric Light Company and had Christmas tree light bulbs made especially for him. His Christmas tree was decorated with light bulbs of red, white and blue that had been hand-wired together, on this day, at his home in New York. This was, at first, ignored by newspapers, as they viewed this as a publicity stunt, but was published by a Detroit newspaper reporter, and today Johnson is regarded as the Father of Electric Christmas Tree Lights. Afterwards, businesses were inspired to start stringing these behind their windows, but they were still too expensive for the average person, and only became the majority replacement for candles in 1930.

 

Previous to this, Christmas trees were traditionally decorated with candles, and were glued with melted wax to the tree branch, or instead, attached by pins. The concept of an illuminated and bright Christmas tree came from the British Queen Victoria's reign, which, through emigration, spread to North America and Australia. In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in London was entirely lit by electricity, provided by Sir Joseph Swan, and a year later, the principal fairies at the theatre were equipped with miniature lighting from Swan's company, for the opera, Gilbert and Sullivan, premiering on 25 November 1882, causing the term 'fairy lights' to enter into the English society.

 

Want to find out more about this common staple of the Christmas season? Click here for more information.

 

 

December 21 - Lockerbie Disaster

This Day in History: 21 December 2019

 

21 December 1998

 

21 years ago, today, the Lockerbie disaster occurred, the deadliest terror attack in Britain. The Pan Am Fight 103 was destroyed mid-air, killing 258 that were onboard, including crew members, as well as an additional 11 residents of Lockerbie, Scotland, that were on ground. This was caused by a bomb, hidden inside an audio cassette player in the cargo area, that exploded when the plane was 31,000 feet above ground. Down below in Lockerbie, parts of the plane and bodies were raining onto houses, and many fires broke out. The tragedy became the subject of Britain's largest criminal investigation and was believed to be an attack against the United States, as the plane was headed towards New York, and 189 of the victims were American. Islamic terrorists were believed to be the culprits of the disaster, planting the bomb while in Frankfurt, Germany, possibly as a retaliation for the 1986 US air strikes against Libya, where many people were killed. Prior to the incident, a warning call had been received by the US embassy in Finland that a bomb would be planted on this flight, however, officials later said that this was coincidental.

 

3 years later, in 1991, the British authorities and the FBI began a joint investigation on Libyan intelligence agents Abdel Basset Ali al-Megrahi and Lamen Khalifa Fhimah. They were both accused of murder, but Libya refused to hand them over. In 1991, Colonel Gaddafi agreed to hand them both over to Scotland using their law and prosecutors. Al-Megrahi was convicted in 2001 and received life in prison, while Fhimah was cleared, however al-Megrahi was freed in 2009 after only having months to live, and he returned back to Libya. In 2003, after al-Megrahi was imprisoned, Libya accepted responsibility for the bombing, resulting in the US and UN then deciding to lift sanctions against Libya, causing Libya to agree to give each victim's families $8 million. Pam Am Airlines also became bankrupt in 1991, and successfully sued Libya, thus gaining $30 million settlement.

 

Want to find out more about one of the worst terrorist attacks in Britain? Click here for more details.

To find out more about how Lockerbie was affected and also more about those suspected, click here for more details.

 

December 20 - The Cheka

This Day in History: 20 December 2019

 

20 December 1917

 

102 years ago, today, the Soviet Union's secret security force, the Cheka, was formed, after a decree by Lenin. Despite this, after the October Revolution in 1917 that resulted in the Bolsheviks gaining power, Lenin had stated that in a proletarian dictatorship, there would be no need for a police force. Nevertheless, the Cheka was established on this day, and even though the Bolshevik's purpose was to eliminate the Tsar and his regimes, the Cheka contained many elements of the Tsarist security system, the Okhrana. Feliks Dzerzhinsky was the Cheka's first head, and he had spent years in Tsarist prisons, therefore learning his tradecraft from the Okhrana.

 

It began quickly to send agents to gather intelligence and promote revolution, as it was initially focussed on internal opposition. By uncovering plots that may have been real or imaginary, it enabled the Bolshevik leaders to claim victory over counter-revolutionary enemies. This establishment of the Cheka caused the British intelligence organisations, such as the MI5, some concern, as they were worried about the risk of subversion in Britain, and their global threat. As a result, the MI1c was involved in counterintelligence and counter-espionage activities against the Bolsheviks. The Cheka is reported to have practised torture, with methods such as being skinned alive, crucified, or stoned to death, and women would sometimes be raped before being shot. They also sometimes imprisoned children between ages 8 to 13, and even executed them. The number of total executions carried out by the Cheka is estimated at about 250,000, with a possible 28,000 executions per year. The Cheka was then finally dissolved on 6 February 1922 but was replaced by the State Political Administration, also called the GPU, which was a forerunner of the KGB, and as was the Cheka.

 

Want to find out more about the Cheka? Click here for more details.

Or, want to find out more about the October Revolution? Clickhere for more details.

And, want to find out more about the State Political Administration? Clickhere for more details.

 

December 19 - Sino-British Joint Declaration

This Day in History: 19 December 2019

 

19 December 1984

 

35 years ago, today, Chinese Premier, Zhao Ziyang, and British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration to transfer Hong Kong back to China in 1997. This was an agreement signed by Britain and China to settle the future of Hong Kong, and the two agreed that China would reassume control of Hong Kong, as it was under British occupation since the Opium War in 1840. Margaret Thatcher travelled to China in September 1982 to begin negotiations, and the talks continued for two years, and the declaration was signed in the Great Hall of People in Beijing on this day.

 

This declaration caused some controversy, as Thatcher's Conservative Party was agreeing with a Communist government, represented by Deng Xiaoping. In the White Paper that contained the Joint Declaration, it was declared by the government that "the alternative to acceptance of the present agreement is to have no agreement", meant as a refute to criticisms that the declaration was too biased towards China, and hinted at China's advantage during the negotiations. Many political analysts thought that there was a sense of urgency to make an agreement, as there were fears that without a treaty, the economy in Hong Kong would collapse, and there were also concerns about land ownership. The Joint Declaration was more affected by property and economic factors rather than geographic or political reasons.

 

Want to find out more about the details of the Declaration? Clickhere for more details.

 

 

The History of Christmas Crackers

If anyone had Christmas dinner this week at school, you may or may not have read the interesting history of Christmas Crackers featured in your cracker. If not, here it is!

 

The History of Christmas Crackers

 

On a trip to Paris, in 1840, an adventurous and forward-thinking man, Tom Smith, discovered the sugared almond, called the 'bon bon', which was wrapped in a twist of tissue paper. This was later developed to be the Christmas Cracker.

 

Tom Smith placed a small love motto in the tissue paper, and created an interest in the product, especially at Christmas, and as he was searching for inspiration to achieve greater sales, he casually threw a log on the fire. The crackle sound made by this gave him the idea that would lead do the modern cracker sound. After hard work and experimenting, he came up with the mechanism of cracking that created a 'pop', breaking the 'bon bon' wrapping. This became the snap, and thus, the cracker was born.

 

Over the next years, his idea evolved and grew, and he moved from his original premises in East London to in the city, in Finsbury Square. His sons, named Tom, Walter and Henry, took over his business when he died, and later a drinking fountain was established, by Walter, in memory of his mother, and to commemorate his father who invented the Christmas Cracker. It was also Walter who introduced the paper hats and toured the world to find new and unusual ideas for the gifts. The company also produced crackers for the Suffragettes, War Heroes, Charlie Chaplin, The Coronation and many other amazing occasions and people. Exclusive crackers are also produced and made for the Royal Family.

 

Happy Birthday Stalin!

Yesterday, 18 December, would have been Joseph Stalin's 141th birthday. Feared by many, he will forever be remembered as the Soviet Union's dictator who ruled over them through the Second World War, and into the Cold War.

December 18 - The Christmas Bombings

This Day in History: 18 December 2019

 

18 December 1972

 

47 years ago, today, US President Richard Nixon announced the beginning of a large bombing onto North Vietnam to break their stalemate, as this was during the Vietnam War, which lasted for 19 years, mainly between South and North Vietnam. This gained many informal titles, such as 'The December Raids' and 'The Christmas Bombings', and was carried out for over a week. Peace talks between the US and Communist-supported North Vietnam collapsed prior, and the negotiators on both sides swapped charges as to who was to blame. President Nixon was angered by this, and as a response, ordered plans to be drawn up for retaliatory bombings on North Vietnam, resulting in OperationLinebacker II. This began on this day, and 20,000 bombs were dropped on the cities of Hanoi and Haiphong, but the US also lost 26 fighter planes in total during the attack. North Vietnam also claimed that over 1,600 civilians were killed in this operation.

 

On December 29, the North Vietnamese finally agreed to resume the peace negotiations. A few weeks later, on 27 January 1973, the Paris Peace Accords were signed, ending direct US involvement in the war, and also created a ceasefire between North and South Vietnam. Some historians argue that these 'Christmas Bombings' forced the North Vietnamese back to the negotiating table, while others have suggested the attacks had little impact, apart from the deaths of many and the destruction it caused. The main impact of these bombings may have been seen as finally convincing the South Vietnamese that the US would not desert them, as they were highly suspicious of the initial peace treaty proposed previous to the bombings.

 

Want to find out more about this significant event in the Vietnam War? Clickhere for more details.

 

December 17 - First Airplane Flight

This Day in History: 17 December 2019

 

17 December 1903

 

116 years ago, today, the Wright brothers made the first sustained motorised aircraft, piloted by Orville Wright, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, which remained in the air for 12 seconds. Orville and Wilbur grew up in Ohio, and did not attend college, but still had amazing technical abilities, and an intuitive approach to problem solving mechanical designs. They began by building their own bicycles in their sales and repair shop, and this, combined with profits from their businesses, allowed them to pursue their dream of building the world's first airplane.

 

The brothers settled on Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, as a suitable place to carry out their glider tests as it offered steady winds and sand dunes to glide and land on. Their first design was poor, but a new glider proved more successful in 1901. After this, they built a wind tunnel to test wings and airframes, and their trial-and-error methods worked, as they flew hundreds of successful flights in their 1902 glider near Kitty Hawk. This was a biplane glider, and featured a steering system, something that many unsuccessful attempts before theirs failed to include. In 1903, they designed an internal combustion engine, and planned to test it out in Dayton, their hometown. The first try, on December 14, failed as the engine stalled during take-off, but three days later, after repairing the plane, they tried again. On this day, in front of five witnesses, they flew the plane down a monorail track and into the air. They repeated this historic flight three more times in the day, and the last flight, flown by Wilbur, covered 852 feet in just under a minute.

 

After this, for the next few years, the two kept a low profile while developing more airplanes, in order to secure patents and contracts. In 1908, in France, they made their first public flights, sparking public excitement. The brothers then founded the Wright Company to build and market their invention, and the infamous plane of 1903 is on permanent display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.

 

Want to find out more about this historic invention? Click here for more details.

 

UK General Election 2019

UK General Election 2019: What Does It All Mean? – Written by Alex Howe

 

As of the 12th of December 2019, the UK re-elected the Conservative Party led by Boris Johnson, into government. They achieved a total of 365 seats- a majority of 80 seats and an increase on their 318 seats won in the 2017 General Election. This resulted in devastating losses for the Labour Party who won only 203 seats, a huge decrease on their 262-seat result in 2017.

 

Although a Conservative government was almost certain, what wasn't certain was the fate of individual MPs and constituencies across the UK. Jo Swinson in particular may have been hoping for a different fate as the Liberal Democrats managed to achieve 11 seats, a decrease of 1 from 2017, which also resulted in the loss of her Scottish constituency of East Dunbartonshire, and, her leadership of the party. Similarly, after Labour suffered one of the worst elections in living memory, Jeremy Corbyn, despite retaining his seat in Islington North, has announced that he won't be leading the Labour party into the next general election and will resign next year, thrusting his party into political uncertainty.

 

It is clear that many parties suffered a host of catastrophic changes, but what does this all mean for us, the people? A Tory majority will almost definitely see Brexit legislation pushed through and our exit from the EU begin to materialise. Additionally, in terms of education, Johnson has promised to increase school spending by £7.1b by 2022-23 and increase teachers' overall and starting salaries. Similarly, in regard to the NHS, Conservatives pledged £33.9b extra funding a year, 50million extra GP appointments a year and 50,000 more nurses. The privatisation of the NHS has also been a major concern, with Labour habitually accusing Johnson of orchestrating this behind closed doors with the US. Although this has not been officially confirmed, we know that our economic ties with the US will certainly strengthen- confirmed by Trump tweeting that both countries will now be able to 'strike a massive new Trade Deal after BREXIT'. However, what this trade deal would entail exactly is largely unknown.

 

Now, whether you love them or loathe them, the Conservatives managed to achieve their most successful general election campaign since the 80s, removing the previously unworkable divide within the House of Commons. But at what price? An even bigger divide between classes, races and religions? With complex issues such as Brexit and an under-funded NHS, it's hard to calculate what the fallout and most importantly, the future, of our country will look like.

 

To view some interesting statistics about how the differences in people make them statistically more likely to vote for different parties, visit https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2019/10/31/2019-general-election-demographics-dividing-britai

 

 

 

December 16 - Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell

This Day in History: 16 December 2019

 

16 December 1653

 

366 years ago, today, Puritan and Parliamentarian General, Oliver Cromwell, was appointed as Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. Cromwell opposed the King at the time, Charles I, in the Long Parliament, called that due to its eight-year duration, and fought for Parliament in the Civil War, as he thought that Parliament leaders did not do enough to try to defeat Charles. At the end of the first Civil War in 1646, Cromwell and his New Model Army tried to negotiate peace, but Charles betrayed them by starting the Second Civil War. Cromwell was among those who put the King on trial in 1649 and subsequently sentenced him to death. After this, Cromwell was asked by Parliament to get rid of any remaining royalist supporters, who continued to rebel against Parliament, and so he did, particularly in 1649, at the siege of Drogheda in Ireland.

 

When Cromwell returned to Parliament, he found the last few MPs of the Long Parliament were still sitting and could not agree with them about how to rule since there was no king. To solve this, the army took control and declared Cromwell as Lord Protector. He was not a king, but he ruled like one. He also still could not agree with his Parliament, and dismissed them, so instead ruled through his military generals, turning into a dictator. With this role, he allowed greater religious freedoms for Protestants, but introduced moral restrictions for his subjects, which included the ban of theatre, the ban on drinking and the ban of celebrating Christmas. Cromwell also, positively, increased the navy, which defeated the Dutch, and captured Jamaica from the Spanish, but when he died, Cromwell's title of Lord Protector collapsed and Charles II was restored as king, therefore bringing back the monarchy.

 

Want to find out more about Oliver Cromwell? Visit https://www.britannica.com/biography/Oliver-Cromwell for more information. Or, watch the films 'Cromwell' (1970) or 'To Kill a King' (2003) for some interpretations of Cromwell's character.

To find out more about the Siege of Drogheda, visit https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Drogheda for more information.

 

December 15 - Nazi Adolf Eichmann's Death Penalty

This Day in History: 15 December 2019

 

15 December 1961

 

58 years ago, today, Nazi Adolf Eichmann, an officer who helped to organise the Holocaust, was sentenced to death for war crimes in Israel. Eichmann joined the Nazi's elite organisation in November 1932, and his responsibilities in Nazi Germany included policing, intelligence, and the enforcement of Germany's dictator's, Adolf Hitler, anti-Semitic policies. His first mission that involved Jews was in Vienna, in 1938, when he was given the task to eradicate them from the city, where he set up a Jewish deportment centre, and carried out a similar mission in Prague. In 1942, at the Wannsee Conference, Eichmann and other top Nazi officials began to plan for a "final solution of the Jewish question", in the form of the Holocaust, where three to four million Jews died.

 

After the Second World War, Eichmann was captured by US troops, but escaped before facing trial. He travelled under a different identity, and arrived in Argentina in 1950, where many Nazi war criminals also were hiding. He was safe until 1957, when a German prosecutor secretly informed Israel about Eichmann's whereabouts, and the Israel intelligence service, Mossad, was subsequently deployed in Argentina, and more agents were brought in during the festivities held for the 150^th anniversary of the revolution against Spain. On May 20, Eichmann was flown out of Argentina after being snatched out of the street by Mossad operatives, and his trial began in April the next year, in Jerusalem, and was also the first televised trial in history.

 

Eichmann faced 15 charges, which included crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish, and war crimes. His excuse was that he was just following orders but was still found guilty on all accounts on this day and was sentenced to death. On May 31, 1962, he was hanged, and his body was cremated, and his ashes thrown into the sea. Toward the end of World War Two, Eichmann had uttered "I will leap into my grave laughing because the feeling that I have five million human beings on my conscience is for me a source of extraordinary satisfaction". Despite claiming he would leap while laughing into his grave, he was instead cremated, executed, and hanged: karma.

 

Want to find out more on Adolf Eichmann's trial? Read Hannah Arendt's, a political theorist who was at the trial, book, 'Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil' for more details. Or, visithttps://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/eichmann-trial for more information on the trial instead.

 

December 14 - Race to the South Pole

This Day in History: 14 December 2019

 

14 December 1911

 

108 years ago, today, Norwegian, Roald Amundsen, became the first person to reach the South Pole, and thus beat his British rival, Robert Falcon Scott. Roald was one of the greatest figures in polar exploration, and in 1897, he was aboard the Belgian expedition that was the first ever to visit the Antarctic in Winter. 6 years later, he guided theGjöa through the Northwest Passage, and around the Canadian coast. This was the first time the passage had been navigated, and the journey was nothing but difficult and potentially dangerous. This made Roald aspire to become the first man to reach the North Pole, but his dream was crushed in 1909 when he found that American, Robert Peary, had beaten him to it.

 

In response to this, Roald decided to, instead, aim for Antarctica, with the intention of finding the South Pole, which his rival, Robert F. Scott was also trying to achieve. In early 1911, Roald set sail into Antarctica's Bay of Whales, and set up base camp 60 miles closer to the pole than Scott, giving him a slight head start. In October, both men set off from here, and the race begun, with Roald using sleigh dogs, and Scott operating by Siberian motor sledges, ponies and dogs. On this day, Roald's expedition won the race to the pole, and in late January, he returned back to base. The expedition went a lot poorer for Scott, as his motor sleds broke, his ponies had to be shot and the dogs had to be sent back. He eventually reached the South Pole by January 18, 1912, and his frozen body was found later that year.

 

As well as this, although not achieving his dream of being the first person to reach the North Pole, he was the first to fly over it, in a dirigible. Sadly, Roald disappeared on 18 June 1928 while flying on a rescue mission in the Artic, attempting to find members from the new airship Italia. It is believed his plane crashed in a fog in the Barents Sea, but the wreckage of the plane was never found.

 

Want to find out more on Roald Amundsen and his historic achievements? Visithttps://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm for more details.

December 13 - Paraguay Declares War on Brazil

This Day in History: 13 December 2019

 

13 December 1864

 

155 years ago, today, Paraguay officially declared war on Brazil, and attacked the next day, as part of the War of the Triple Alliance. This was the bloodiest conflict in Latin America history, which was fought between Paraguay, and the countries that were allied, being Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. The tensions before the war started were built due to how much Paraguay were involved in boundary and tariff disputes with Argentina and Brazil, who were its powerful neighbours. Uruguay had also struggled to achieve its independence from the same powers, especially Argentina. Brazil therefore helped Uruguay's Colorado Party win against their opponent, which the dictator of Paraguay, Francisco Solano Lopez, responded by thinking that regional power was threatened, and therefore declared war on Brazil. In retaliation, Argentina and its allies at the time, Brazil and Uruguay (which Colorado controlled) made up the Triple Alliance and declared war on Paraguay in May 1865.

 

At the beginning of the war, Paraguayan forces of a 50,000-men army, the strongest in Latin America at the time, advanced towards Brazil territories, but failed due to logistical problems and the build-up of the allied troop strength, which outnumbered the Paraguayan significantly. As well as this, many fierce battles were fought, but the most noteworthy was won by the Paraguayans in September 1866 and stopped any allied offensive attack for nearly a year. As Brazil continued to press on to advance into the Paraguay capital, Asuncion, they annihilated the Paraguayan army in December, causing Lopez to flee, and was killed on March 1, 1870 in guerrilla warfare.

 

Following this, the Paraguayan people fought to the point of dissolution, as they had been so committed to Lopez and his war effort. This war left Paraguay in despair, as its population had dropped by almost 300,000, and during the war, were facing malnutrition, disease, and the dictatorship of Lopez, who would torture and kill many. The Triple Alliance gained many Paraguayan territory, demanded a large sum of money, and occupied Paraguay until 1876.

 

Want to find out more about this Latin American war? Visithttps://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/War_of_the_Triple_Alliance for more details.

December 12 - Kenyan Independence

This Day in History: 12 December 2019

 

12 December 1963

 

56 years ago, today, Kenya declared its independence from the United Kingdom. It was formerly British East Africa, but after the Kenya Independence Act of 1964, it became the independent country of Kenya. This came after the first direct elections for the Native Kenyans to the Legislative Council, in 1957. The British hoped to hand power to 'moderate' local rivals, but the government that was actually formed was the Kenya African National Union (KANU) underJomo Kenyatta, an anti-Colonist activist and politician. The previous Colony of Kenya and the Protectorate of Kenya both came to an end on this day, resulting in their independence, and the United Kingdom halting their rule of the country. As well as this, the Sultan of Zanzibar also agreed simultaneously that they would stop their rule over Kenya, so it would be one independent state. A year later, on 12 December 1964, Kenya became a republic, under the name 'Republic of Kenya'.

 

As well, on the 12 December 1964, at the same time of the Republic of Kenya being established,Jomo Kenyatta was also sworn in as the first president. Under him, corruption was widespread throughout the government, civil service, and business community. His family was tied up with this, as they increased their wealth and status by mass purchasing property after 1963. The family also heavily invested in the coastal hotel business, andJomo Kenyatta personally owned the Leonard Beach Hotel. He ruled until his death in August 1978.

 

Happy Kenyan Independence Day everybody!

 

Want to find out more about the history of Kenya? Visit http://www.kenyarep-jp.com/kenya/history_e.html for more information.

 

December 11 - Muhammad Ali's Retirement

This Day in History: 11 December 2019

 

11 December 1981

 

38 years ago, today, Muhammad Ali fought and lost his last fight, losing to TrevorBerbick. Muhammad Ali was a heavyweight boxing champion, with a 56-win record, and is subsequently regarded as one of the greatest athletes of the 20^th century. As well as this, he became an Olympic gold medallist in 1960, and the world heavyweight boxing champion in 1964.  Aside from boxing, Ali also converted to Islam during the 1970s, transforming his birth name, Cassius Clay, into the new name of Cassius X, before settling on Muhammad Ali. In 1967, Ali refused to fight in the military on the basis that his religion would not allow him, and therefore his world title and boxing license was taken away but returned in 1970 after missing three prime years in his career. He also was married four times and had nine children.

 

Muhammad Ali had a total of 56 wins, 5 losses and 37 knockouts before his retirement on 11 December 1981 at the age of 39. As a boxer, he was known for boasting about his skills before a fight, and famously told reporters he could "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee". Ali fought many legendary fights, but his final match was against TrevorBerbick, which was one final loss which led to his retirement. However, three years later, in 1984, Ali was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, and this progressed and led to the onset of spinal stenosis, a condition that narrows the spine.

 

Before his death, Ali supported organisations such as the Special Olympics and the Make-A-Wish Foundation and opened the Muhammad Ali Centre in his hometown of Louisville in 2005. He also received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President George W. Bush in 2007, and the President's Award from the NAACP for his public service efforts in 2009. Unfortunately, Muhammad Ali died in Phoenix, Arizona in 2016, after being hospitalised for a respiratory issue, being 74 years old.

 

Want to find out more on Muhammad Ali's life? Watch the biopic film, 'Ali', where Muhammad Ali is portrayed by Will Smith, or visithttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad-Ali-boxer for more information.

 

Nonsuch HP Society

Hello everybody!

 

Starting from tomorrow, some of us in the Sixth Form will be starting the History and Politics Society, in room 104 at 1:20!

 

We will be discussing the Salem Witch Trials, which are very interesting so please come along for our first session, to find out about the witches in the 17^th century America, and how they were treated, identified, and killed.

December 10 - Edward VIII Abdicates for Wallis Simpson

This Day in History: 10 December 2019

 

10 December 1936

 

83 years ago, today, King Edward VIII signed the Instrument of Abdication, resulting in him giving up the British throne to marry American divorcee, Wallis Simpson. This announcement was made on British radio, making Edward one of the shortest-reigning monarchs in British history, as he took the throne after his father, George V, on January 20, 1936, with his coronation planned for May 1937. Edward was known to have a number of mistresses, and among them was Lady Thelma Furness, who introduced him to American socialite Wallis Simpson in 1931. Wallis was born in June 1896 in Pennsylvania, and in 1916, met and married Earl Winfield Spencer, a US Navy pilot. Since he was an alcoholic, their marriage decayed, and they were divorced in 1927. Soon after, she met Ernest Simpson, and were married in London in 1928.

 

In 1934, Wallis became Prince Edward's mistress, and was presented at court in 1935, after spending many holidays together. When Edward's father, King George V, died in 1936, Edward immediately became the King, but hated the formalities of royal life, and preferred partying. Later that year, Wallis filed for divorce against her second husband due to his infidelity, and Edward declared that he intended to marry her as soon as this was finalised.

 

However, this caused many issues. As King, he was also head of the Church of England, who taught that divorcees would not remarry if their former spouse was still alive. In December, Prime Minister at the time, Stanley Baldwin, told Edward that he must choose between Wallis and the Crown, so Edward then chose to abdicate, and his younger brother, Bertie (George VI), was crowned, who would, in the future, father Queen Elizabeth II. After this, Edward became the Duke of Windsor, and left Britain to marry Wallis in June 1937, but she was denied the formality of 'Her Royal Highness' by George VI and remained an outcast from the Royal Family for the rest of her life. They both lived in Paris after the Second World War, where Edward died in 1972, aged 77, and Wallis died in 1986, aged 89.

 

Want to find out more about the shy and stuttering Bertie, or George V? The story is documented in the 2010 film, 'The King's Speech'.

Want to find out more on Wallis and Edward? Visit https://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/articles/king-edward-viii-and-mrs-simpson/ for more information.

December 9 - Traffic Lights

This Day in History: 9 December 2019

 

9 December 1868

 

151 years ago, today, the first non-electric gas-light traffic lights were installed outside the Place of Westminster in London, to control the traffic in Bridge Street, Great George Street and Parliament Street. The idea was first suggested by railway engineer, J.P. Knight, who had been inspired by the design of railway signalling systems, and the final design combined semaphore arms with red and green gas lamps. In these traffic lights, a gas lantern was manually turned on by a police officer with a lever at the base, in order for the appropriate light faced the traffic, which is very different to modern day automatic lights. The semaphore arms of the traffic lights would extend horizontally, which instructed drivers to stop, and then would lower to a 45-degree angle to signal to proceed with caution. At night, a red light would command stop, and a green light would mean caution.

 

The main reason for the first traffic light installation was due to the overflow of horse-drawn traffic over Westminster Bridge, which forced thousands of people to walk next to the Houses of Parliament. It was said, at the time, to be successful at controlling the traffic, but its operational life was brief, as it exploded on 2 January 1869, less than a month after it was installed. This was as a result of a leak in one of the gas lines underneath the pavement and injured the policeman who was operating it. After this, however, traffic lights began to be used all over the United States but were modified to have the words 'stop' and 'go' in white, and instead had kerosene lamps for night travellers. Traffic lights were also implemented in Paris in 1912 and started to be controlled by automatic timers in 1922, with Wolverhampton being the first British town to introduce these.

 

Want to find out more on the history of traffic lights? Visithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_light for more information.

 

December 8 - INF Treaty

This Day in History: 8 December 2019

 

8 December 1987

 

32 years ago, today, the United States President, Ronald Reagan and Soviet Union leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, signed a treaty eliminating medium range nuclear missiles. This was called the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, more commonly known as the INF Treaty. This was decided at the Washington Summit of 1987 between the two presidents, when Gorbachev decided that his country's best interests lay in the agreements on disarmament, reducing spending on weapons and better relations with the West. This marked the first US and Soviet summit to outcome in the signing of a formal treaty, instead of only a slight improvement in relations, like the two previous summits, the Geneva Summit (1985) and the Reykjavik Summit (1986), achieved. The treaty said that both countries would abolish all land-based missiles with a range of 500 to 5,500 kilometres.

 

The treaty resulted in the dismantling of 2,619 missiles, and about two-thirds of the missiles affected were of the Soviets, and the rest belonged to the Americans. In order to ensure this permanent elimination of the missiles, each country, for 13 years, was given the right to inspect each other's operating bases and support facilities, at which weapons fitting into the INF category might be produced.

 

However, on 1 February 2019, the US President, Donald Trump, announced he was suspending participation in the treaty, in reaction to the development of a prohibited missile by Russia. This was countered by Russian President, Vladimir Putin, by stating that US antiballistic missile defence systems in Europe also caused a breach in the treaty. The US then formally withdrew from the treaty on 2 August 2019, over 4 months ago. With no clear successor to the treaty, the world may be currently facing a new nuclear arms race, just like that of the Cold War…

 

Want to find out more on this seemingly outdated treaty that was partially responsible for the end of the Cold War? Visithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate-Range_Nuclear_Forces_Treaty for more details.