July 2 - The Civil Rights Act is Signed

This Day in History: 2 July 2020

 

2 July 1964

 

56 years ago, today, the historic Civil Rights Act was signed by US President Lyndon B. Johnson in a nationally televised ceremony at the White House. Racial segregation was ruled by the Supreme Court as unconstitutional ten years prior to the act. The time that followed saw great progress for the African American civil rights movement, with many non-violent demonstrations winning thousands of supporters to the cause. Other memorable landmarks in the struggle included the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955, inspired by Rosa Parks, and Martin Luther King Jr.'s 'I Have a Dream' speech in 1963.

 

As the civil rights movement grew, President John F. Kennedy pledged to pass a new civil rights bill in his successful 1960 presidential campaign. After he was assassinated, Lyndon B. Johnson vowed to carry out Kennedy's proposals for civil rights reform. The Civil Rights Act fought against tough opposition in the House and stirred a heated debate in the Senate before being approved. The act prohibited racial discrimination in employment and education, as well as outlawing racial segregation in public places such as schools, buses, parks and swimming pools. It also laid important foundations for other pieces of legislation, including the Voting Rights Act of 1965, that set strict rules for protecting the rights of African Americans to vote. Simultaneously, the new legislations have been used to enforce equal rights for women, minorities and the LGBT community.

 

Want to find out more about the Civil Rights Act and the civil rights movement? Click here for more on the historic Civil Rights Act, or here for more information generically on the movement.

July 1 - Hong Kong is Handed Back to China

This Day in History: 1 July 2020

 

1 July 1997

 

23 years ago, today, Hong Kong was returned to mainland China and Chinese rule. This was marked by a ceremony attended by Chinese President Jiang Zemin, US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, Princes Charles of Wales and British Prime Minister Tony Blair. The turnover was protested over by a few thousand Hong Kongers, but despite this, the event was celebratory and peaceful. China had been invaded by Britain in 1839 to crush opposition to its interference in the nation's economic, social and political affairs. One of Britain's first acts was to occupy Hong Kong, which was given away by China to the British in 1841 with the signing of the Convention of Chuenpi.

 

Hong Kong flourished under British rule as an East-West trading centre and as the distribution centre for southern China. Britain gained an additional 99 years of rule over Hong Kong in 1898, but in 1984, after years of negotiation, this was brought to a halt. The British and Chinese signed a formal agreement approving the turnover of the region in exchange for the Chinese to promise to preserve the state's capitalist system. Hong Kong was peacefully handed back to China, and a new system was formulated by the new Hong Kong government and the chief executive, Tung Chee Hwa. This was a policy based on the concept of 'one country, two systems', preserving Hong Kong's capitalism.

 

Want to find out more about the history of Hong Kong under Britain and the turnover? Click here for more information of Hong Kong's history, or here for a video explaining about the turnover.

June 30 - The Night of the Long Knives

This Day in History: 30 June 2020

 

30 June 1934

 

86 years ago, today, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler ordered a bloody purge of his own party members in the Night of the Long Knives. Hundreds of Nazis were assassinated as Hitler thought they had the potential to become political enemies. The leadership of the Nazi Storm Troopers, the SA, was especially targeted. The purge confirmed Hitler's supremacy, as well as successfully eliminating the SA as a threat. In the early 1920s, Hitler's Nazi Party had grown full of resentful Germans that sympathised with the party's hatred of the country's democratic government, leftist politics and Jews. In November, the Nazis launched their first attempt at seizing the German government by force, but the uprising was suppressed, leading to Hitler's arrest and a sentence of five years in prison.

 

While in jail, Hitler spent his time dictating his autobiography, 'Mein Kampf', and after only nine months, he was released due to political pressure from Nazi Party supporters. The party was reorganised during the next few years, before Hitler was appointed chancellor by President Paul von Hindenburg, hoping that Hitler would be brought down as a member of the cabinet. However, Hitler's political power was underestimated, as one of the new chancellor's first acts was to call for a general election. The police, under Nazi Hermann Goering, suppressed much of the opposition before the election, and Hitler took on absolute power shortly after through the Enabling Acts. Hindenburg died in 1934, thus dismantling the last remains of the democratic government, paving the way for Hitler's desire for war and genocide.

 

Want to find out more about the Night of the Long Knives? Click here for more information, or here for more on Hitler's rise to power. Click here for a video that explains the events from the Night of the Long Knives.

June 29 - The Globe Theatre Burns Down

This Day in History: 29 June 2020

 

29 June 1613

 

407 years ago, today, the Globe Theatre, where most of Shakespeare's plays debuted, burned down. In 1599, the Globe had been built by Shakespeare's acting company, the Lord Chamberlain's Men. It was constructed from the timbers of London's first permanent theatre, Burbage's Theatre, that was built in 1576. However, before James Burbage had created his theatre, plays and dramatic performances in England were impromptu. They were most commonly performed on street corners and in the gardens of inns. In 1574, this changed when the Common Council of London started to license theatrical pieces. James Burbage built his own theatre to escape the restrictions, and when the lease ran out on his land, the Lord Chamberlain's men moved the timbers to a new location, creating the Globe.

 

The Globe was a round, wooden structure, typical of other theatres of the time, with a stage at one end, and covered balconies for the gentry. The galleries could seat as many as 1,000 people, with room for another 2,000 who could stand on the ground around the stage. Ultimately, this wooden structure would lead to the theatre's downfall. During a performance of 'Henry VIII', a theatrical canon misfired and ignited the wooden beams and thatching. It was reported by one of the few surviving documents of the event that no one was hurt except a man whose burning breeches were put out with a bottle of ale. The Globe was rebuilt in the following year.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the Globe Theatre? Click here for more information, or here for more information about the fire in 1613.

June 28 - The Stonewall Riots Begin

This Day in History: 28 June 2020

 

28 June 1969

 

51 years ago, today, the Stonewall riots began. These were a series of spontaneous and violent demonstrations by the LGBT community, in response to a police raid that began in the early morning, at the Stonewall Inn in New York City. The event is regarded by many as history's first major protest on behalf of the LGBT community. Although the police were perhaps legally justified in raiding the club, that was serving liquor without a license, the gay community in New York had been increasingly growing weary of the police department targeting gay clubs.

 

Soon afterwards, the crowd began to throw bottles at the police, leading to the protest spilling over into the neighbouring streets. Order was not restored until some hours later. The riots were followed by many days of demonstrations in New York and was the driving force for the formation of the Gay Liberation Front, as well as other LGBT activism organisations. The next year, New York's official gay pride parade set off from Stonewall, and June was later designated as LGBT Pride Month. On the event's 50^th anniversary, in 2019, the New York Police Department formally apologised for its role in the Stonewall Riots, and for the discriminatory laws that restricted the rights of gay people.

 

Want to find out more about the Stonewall Riots? Click here for more information, or here for more details on the LGBT movement in America.

June 27 - The Battle of Dettingen

This Day in History: 27 June 2020

 

27 June 1743

 

277 years ago, today, the Battle of Dettingen began, during the War of Austrian Succession. It was fought between a Pragmatic Army, composed of the British, Hanoverians and Austrians, and a French army, commanded by the Duc de Noailles. This battle would also mark the last time a British monarch personally led his troops into battle, as King George II commanded the British force. When Charles VI had died in 1740, Europe exploded into conflict over the matter of his successor. Maria Theresa, his daughter, took the role upon herself, but this sparked backlash. Several European nations, led by France and Prussia, rejected her legitimacy as Salic laws prevented inheritance of the Hapsburg monarchy by a woman. The conflict would rage on for seven years.

 

The Allies had retreated the battle as they were in short of supplies, and therefore abandoned their wounded. Unable to agree on the best way to exploit their 'victory', they ended by doing nothing. It was the last battle for several senior officers, including Noailles, who was appointed as Foreign Minister in 1744. Only the infantry's training and discipline had saved the army from destruction; the cavalry failed to locate 23,000 men while many troopers were supposedly unable to control their horses. Despite being an Allied victory, the battle had little effect on the wider war, and has been described as 'a happy escape, rather than a great victory'.

 

Want to find out more about the Battle of Dettingen? Click here for more information.

June 26 - The Berlin Airlift Begins

This Day in History: 26 June 2020

 

26 June 1948

 

72 years ago, today, the United States initiated the Berlin airlift in response to the Soviet blockade of land routes into West Berlin. Food, water, and medicine were transported to the citizens of the city, which continued for nearly a year, sustaining the population of West Berlin. The blockade had begun two days prior, as the Soviet Union cut off all travel to and from the city, which was located inside the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany. This action taken by the Soviets was in response to the refusal of American and British officials to allow more Soviet influence in the decisions made about the economic future of Germany.

 

The provoking move by the Soviets shocked President Harry S. Truman, leading to a direct military response. However, as Truman did not want to spark World War Three, he instead ordered a grand airlift of supplies into West Berlin. Over 200,000 planes would carry in more than one-and-a-half million tons of supplies. However, this blockade was continued until May 1949, when it became apparent that the blockade had simply been a diplomatic fiasco for the Soviets. They were internationally portrayed as bullies that held men, woman and children hostage, as they threatened them with starvation. The American airlift success also backfired against the Soviets as it highlighted the American's technological superiority.

 

Want to find out more about the Berlin blockade and airlift? Click here for more information on the airlift, or here for more about the blockade.

June 25 - The Korean War Begins

This Day in History: 25 June 2020

 

25 June 1950

 

70 years ago, the Korean War began, after armed forces from communist North Korea attacked South Korea. Korea had been divided into zones of occupation after World War Two, but this temporary division soon became permanent, just like in Germany. The Soviets assisted in the establishment of a communist regime in North Korea, while the United States became the main source of financial and military support for South Korea. When the North Korean forces headed towards the South Korean capital, Seoul, the United States responded by pushing a resolution through the UN's Security Council. President Harry S. Truman rapidly dispatched US land, air and sea forces.

 

This American intervention turned the tide as South Korean and US forces marched into North Korea. However, this prompted the massive intervention from communist China, which would eventually turn the war into a bloody stalemate. In 1953, a cease-fire was signed between the US and North Korea to end the conflict, also resulting in the continued division of the two Korean nations. This was the first major war of the Cold War; over 55,000 American troops were killed. The American government's 'limited' goal of only protecting South Korea was essential in preventing the outbreak of a third world war, but proved to be frustrating for the American public, who were used to total victories that had been achieved in World War Two. This new concept was difficult to understand for many, so the Korean War never gained much popular support.

 

Want to find out more about the Korean War? Click here for more information, or here for a video that briefly explains the event.

June 24 - Coronation of Henry VIII

This Day in History: 24 June 2020

 

24 June 1509

 

511 years ago, today, Henry VIII was crowned King of England. His coronation occurred alongside Catherine of Aragon, who became Queen of England. This took place at Westminster Abbey, and it was a grand affair. The king's passage was lined with magnificent tapestries and laid with fine cloth. After the ceremony, an outstanding banquet was held in Westminster Hall. On ascending to the throne, any new king must swear to defend the Church. However, the oath that Henry took had several significant revisions undertaken. Instead of swearing to maintain the rights of the Church, he would swear to maintain those of the 'holy church of England', possibly anticipating the break with Rome. Nevertheless, there is nothing to confirm this altered version was used in the coronation, nor at his son's.

 

King Henry VIII is arguably best known for his six marriages, in particular his first annulled marriage to Catherine of Aragon. His disagreement with Pope Clement VII on the matter of this annulment was most likely a key factor to the initiation of the English Reformation, where the Church of England was separated from papal authority. He was self-appointed as the Supreme Head of the Church of England, dissolved convents and monasteries, and was subsequently excommunicated. Even though his contemporaries viewed him as attractive, he became severely overweight as he aged, and eventually died in 1547. He was succeeded by his son, Edward VI.

 

Want to find out more about the coronation of Henry VIII? Click here for more information, or here for more on the king's life.

June 23 - Gamal Abdel Nasser Becomes Egyptian President

This Day in History: 23 June 2020

 

23 June 1956

 

64 years ago, today, Gamal Abdel Nasser was elected as the first president of the Republic of Egypt. He had toppled the Egyptian monarchy four years prior in a military coup, deposing the regime of King Farouk, and he was the only presidential candidate on the ballot. In the same ballot, Nasser's new constitution, where Egypt would become a one-party socialist state with Islam as its official religion, was approved by 99.8% of voters. However, this socialist constitution was consciously nonaligned with the communist and democratic-capitalist systems of the Cold War world.

 

Nasser's first major crisis as President occurred when the United States and Great Britain reversed their decision to finance a dam on the River Nile, in response to an Egyptian arms agreement with the USSR. Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal in light of this, sparking a later attack from Israel, Britain and France. As the nations were pressured into withdrawing, the Suez Canal was left in Egyptian hands, elevating Nasser's prestige in the Arab world. The Aswan High Dam was finally completed in 1970, with help from the Soviets, but two months later, Nasser died of a heart attack, and was succeeded by Anwar el-Sadat. Throughout Nasser's time in power, he was a consistently popular leader, whose economic policies and land reforms improved many Egyptians' quality of life. His independent policies won him respect not just in the Arab world, but internationally as well.

 

Want to find out more about the life of President Nasser? Click here for more information, or here for an interview with him from 1969.

June 22 - The Royal Greenwich Observatory is Founded

This Day in History: 22 June 2020

 

22 June 1675

 

345 years ago, today, the Royal Greenwich Observatory was founded by King Charles II. However, the establishment was proposed a year prior by Sir Jonas Moore, the Surveyor-General of Ordnance, who persuaded the King to create the observatory, installing John Flamsteed as its director, and later as the first Astronomer Royal. Moore's office was given the responsibility of building the Observatory, with Moore himself providing the key instruments and equipment needed, at his own personal cost. The original part of the Observatory, Flamsteed House, was designed by Christopher Wren, and was the first purpose-built scientific research facility in Great Britain.

 

This observatory is located upon a hill in Greenwich Park, overlooking the River Thames. It significantly contributed to the history of astronomy and navigation. Additionally, it gave its name to Greenwich Mean Time, as the prime meridian passes through it. In the first half of the 20^th century, the scientific work of the observatory was relocated elsewhere gradually. During the Blitz, the Courtyard gates of the Observatory were destroyed by a direct bomb attack. The clock's dial was also damaged, but it was repaired after the Second World War had ended. Today, the Greenwich site is now kept almost exclusively as a museum. However, in 2018, the Annie Maunder Astrographic Telescope, the AMAT, became operational for astronomical research.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the Royal Greenwich Observatory? Click here for more information.

June 21 - Arthur Miller Refuses to Name Communists

This Day in History: 21 June 2020

 

21 June 1956

 

64 years ago, today, playwright Arthur Miller defied the House Committee on Un-American Activities by refusing to name suspected communists. This committee's goal was to uproot communists hidden in America, and so began to target left-wingers in Hollywood, and liberals in the State Department. Miller's rebellion against the HUAC and general McCarthyism, won him a conviction for contempt of the court. However, this was later reversed by the Supreme Court. Before this, his passport had already been denied when he had attempted to travel to Brussels to attend the premiere of his play, 'The Crucible', that was centred around the Salem witch-trials as an allegory of the hysteria and trials of McCarthyism.

 

Before he was a playwright, Miller was born to a well-off German-Jewish family, that suffered harshly during the Wall Street Crash of 1929. His student plays mainly consisted of studies of Jewish families like his own, and his first literary success was 'Focus', a novel written in 1945 centred around anti-Semitism. However, his first hit Broadway play, 'All My Sons', was written two years later. In 1956, Miller married the film icon, Marilyn Monroe, whose marriage would last until 1961, a year before Monroe passed away. After marrying his third wife, and continuing to write more successful plays, Miller died in 2005 at the age of 89, after suffering from congestive heart failure.

 

Want to find out more about Arthur Miller and the HUAC? Click here for more information on their interaction, or here for more about Arthur Miller's life.

June 20 - The Moscow-Washington Hotline is Agreed

This Day in History: 20 June 2020

 

20 June 1963

 

57 years ago, today, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to establish a 'hot line' communication system. This was a small step in reducing tensions between the two nations. The need for full-time communication between the superpowers became clear during the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962, when the United States discovered Soviet missile sites in Cuba. President John F. Kennedy initiated a naval blockade around Cuba to block the delivery of the missiles, but the nuclear conflict was only avoided when Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to not install the weapons in Cuba. The United States promised in exchange to not threaten the sovereignty of Cuba.

 

The hot-line agreed between the two nations would be a 24-hour communication link between Washington, D.C. President Kennedy declared that the hot-line was needed as "this age of fast-moving events requires quick, dependable communication in time of emergency". The agreement was therefore the first step to reduce the risk of war occurring by accident, and the system was put into place a few months after the agreement was signed. Although in popular culture it is commonly referred to as the 'red telephone', the hotline was never a telephone line, nor were any red phones involved. The first implementation utilised Teletype equipment, which shifted to fax machines in 1986. Since 2008, the hotline has been transformed into a secure computer link where messages are exchanged by a secure form of email.

 

Want to find out more about the Moscow-Washington hotline? Click here for more information, or here to see how the hotline is still relevant today.

June 19 - Execution of the Rosenbergs

This Day in History: 19 June 2020

 

19 June 1953

 

67 years ago, today, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed by electric chair at Sing Sing Prison in New York, after being convicted of conspiring to pass US atomic secrets over to the Soviets. Both proclaimed their innocence up to their deaths and were the first US citizens to be convicted and executed of espionage during peacetime. Julius Rosenberg had been arrested on suspicion three years prior. He was accused of heading a spy ring that passed top-secret information concerning the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union, and Ethel was arrested two months later. The couple constantly protested their innocence, but after a trial began, that attracted media attention, the couple was convicted, and sentenced to death.

 

After their execution, the two became the subject of national and international debate. Some believed that the Rosenbergs were the victims of anti-communist hysteria in 1950s America, influenced by McCarthyism. Protesters began to say that the death sentence handed down was cruel and unusual punishment. Nevertheless, many believed that the Rosenbergs had been dealt with justly and agreed with President Dwight D. Eisenhower when he declined to invoke executive clemency for the pair. He stated that "the execution of two human beings is a grave matter. But even graver is the thought of millions of dead whose deaths may be directly attributable to what these spies have done".

 

Want to find out more about the execution of the Rosenbergs? Click here for more information.

June 18 - The Battle of Waterloo

This Day in History: 18 June 2020

 

18 June 1815

 

205 years ago, today, the Battle of Waterloo was fought, ending in the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at the hands of the Duke of Wellington, ending the Napoleonic era. Two days prior, Napoleon had defeated the Prussians under Gebhard von Blucher, and sent 33,000 men in pursuit of their retreating army. His remaining 72,000 troops faced the Duke of Wellington's 68,000-men army at the Battle of Waterloo. Foolishly, Napoleon waited until mid-day to give the command to attack, to let the ground dry, allowing Blucher's troops, who had escaped their pursuers, time to march to Waterloo and join the battle. The French were finally routed when the Anglo-allied army drove back the French Imperial Guard, throwing the troops into panic and a disorganised retreat.

 

The French suffered around 25,000 casualties from the battle, with an additional 9,000 captured, while the allies lost about 23,000. When Napoleon returned to Paris, he soon abdicated in favour of his son, and decided to leave the country before the opposition could rally against him. On July 15, he surrendered to British protection, hoping to travel to the United States. Instead, Britain sent him to Saint Helena, where he would live for six years. He died in 1821, most likely of stomach cancer, at 51 years old. His body was returned to Paris almost two decades later, where a grand funeral was held.

 

Want to find out more about the Battle of Waterloo and Napoleon Bonaparte? Click here for more on the significance of Waterloo, or here for information about Napoleon's personality traits that led to his downfall.

June 17 - Francis Drake Lands in California

This Day in History: 17 June 2020

 

17 June 1579

 

441 years ago, today, English seaman Francis Drake anchored near present-day California, claiming the territory for Queen Elizabeth I. This land was nicknamed 'Nova Albion', where Drake would remain for a month in order to make repairs to his ship, the Golden Hind, and prepare for his westward crossing of the Pacific Ocean. While ashore, he posted an engraved plate of brass to claim sovereignty for Elizabeth and every succeeding English monarch. Drake also had friendly relations with the Coast Miwok and explored his surrounding land by foot. The repaired ship and crew departed on July 23.

 

Drake had set out from England in December 1577 on a mission to raid Spanish holdings on the Pacific coast of the New World. Many devastating storms hindered his expedition, causing only the Golden Hind, out of Drake's five initial ships, to reach the Pacific Ocean. In search for a possible northeast passage back to the Atlantic, Drake reached as far north as present-day Washington before turning back. The Golden Hind returned home in September 1580, arriving in Plymouth, bearing its riches in treasure and valuable information about the newly discovered great oceans. As a reward for his brave expedition, Queen Elizabeth knighted Drake in 1581 during a visit to his ship.

 

Want to find out more about the adventures of Francis Drake? Click here for more information, or here for some untold facts about the explorer.

June 16 - The Battle of Stoke Field

This Day in History: 16 June 2020

 

16 June 1487

 

533 years ago, today, the Battle of Stoke Field took place between the army of King Henry VII and a Yorkist army under the pretender Lambert Simnel. This battle is considered to be the final battle of the Wars of the Roses. Henry had begun to move north east the previous day, after receiving the news that the Earl of Lincoln had crossed the River Trent. When the battle did begin, Henry left the direction of the fighting to the Earl of Oxford. After three hours, the broken Yorkists fled towards the Trent down a ravine, in which many were cornered and killed. Most of the Yorkist commanders, being Lincoln, Sir Thomas Fitzgerald, and Martin Schwarz, died in battle. Simnel was captured, but was pardoned by Henry, as he realised Simnel was simply a puppet for the leading Yorkists.

 

Although Henry was crowned and married Elizabeth of York, rival claims still remained a large threat to the security of the newly established Tudor dynasty. Some Yorkist supporters of the previous king Richard III still held hopes of placing their own candidates upon the throne. Lambert Simnel had been one imposter who claimed to be Edward Plantagenet, one of the Princes in the Tower, but their actual fates were unknown. The Earl of Lincoln presented Simnel as Edward and was taken to Dublin to be with exiled Yorkist loyalists. He was shortly proclaimed as king and crowned, with Lincoln intending this to act as a beacon for Yorkist disaffections.

 

Want to find out more about the Battle of Stoke Field? Click here for more information, or here for a video that explains the event and its background.

June 15 - Magna Carta is Created

This Day in History: 15 June 2020

 

15 June 1215

 

805 years ago, today, King John put his royal seal on Magna Carta, following a revolt by the English nobility against his rule. John's reign had been characterised by failure. He lost the significant duchy of Normandy to the French and taxed the English nobility heavily to pay for his foreign misadventures. He also argued with Pope Innocent III and sold church offices for the Crown's wealth. The barons under John initiated a rebellion against the king's abuse of feudal law and custom. John had no choice but to give in to their demands. The document drawn up forced the king to make specific guarantees of the rights of his barons, instead of the vague charters of the earlier English kings. John met with his barons at Runnymede upon Thames and set his seal to the Articles of the Barons, formally issued as Magna Carta.

 

The document was essentially a peace treaty between John and his barons and guaranteed that the king would respect feudal rights and privileges, uphold the freedom of the church, and keep the nation's laws. However, civil war still broke out the same year, and John ignored his obligations under the charter. It also did not establish Parliament, as some historians have claimed. Upon John's death, Magna Carta was modified by his son, King Henry III, and later voluntarily reissued for the third time, where it formally entered English statute law. Although it was more of a reactionary document than a progressive one, Magna Carta was still seen as a cornerstone in the development of democratic England.

 

Want to find out more about the signing of Magna Carta and the reign of King John? Click here for more information on the life of King John, or here for more on the Magna Carta.

June 14 - End of the Falklands War

This Day in History: 14 June 2020

 

14 June 1982

 

38 years ago, today, the Falklands War ended, after Argentina surrendered to Great Britain after suffering through six weeks of military defeats. In 1816, Argentina had proclaimed its sovereignty over the Falklands, but this was met with British retaliation, where they militarily occupied the land. A British lieutenant governor was appointed in 1841, and by the 1880s, the British community of around 1,800 was self-supporting. In 1892, the Falkland Islands were granted colonial status. This remained unchanged for the next 90 years, despite constant diplomatic efforts by Argentina to regain control. Despite the islanders' desire to remain British, the military junta led by Lieutenant General Leopoldo Galtieri began to plan the Falklands invasion as a means of promoting patriotic feelings.

 

A full-scale invasion of the Falklands began in April 1982, where amphibious forces rapidly overcame the small garrison of British marines and soon seized the dependent territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich group. The Argentinian troops had been ordered to inflict no British casualties, despite suffering losses to their own units. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was still outraged and assembled a naval fleet of 30 warships to retake the islands. After several weeks of fighting, the large Argentine garrison surrendered, ending the conflict. Britain and Argentina together lost just under 1,000 lives, but the Argentine military was swept from power in 1983 after being humiliated in the war, restoring civilian rule. Thatcher's popularity, however, soared after the conflict, and her Conservative Party won a landslide victory in the 1983 parliamentary elections.

 

Want to find out more about the Falklands War? Click here for more information, or click here for a documentary about the war. 

 

June 13 - Peasants' Revolt Reaches London

This Day in History: 13 June 2020

 

13 June 1381

 

639 years ago, today, a large mob of English peasants, led by Wat Tyler, marched into London, beginning to burn and loot the city. Many government buildings were destroyed, prisoners were released, and a judge and several other citizens were beheaded. This event occurred during the Peasants' Revolt, which had begun when peasant discontent had reached a breaking point, after Parliament restricted voting rights in 1380. Wat Tyler was chosen in Kent by the rebels as their leader, and he led his followers toward London, capturing the towns of Maidstone, Rochester and Canterbury along the way. As he was denied a meeting with King Richard II, he led his rebels into London to burn the city.

 

The next day, the young King met with the peasant leaders and agreed to their demands to eradicate serfdom and marketplace restrictions. The fighting, however, still continued elsewhere, and Tyler led a peasant force against the Tower of London, resulting in the capture of the fortress and the execution of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Tyler finally met the king on June 15, where he presented new demands, including the abolishment of church property. Angered at Tyler's arrogance, the Mayor of London lunged at the rebel with a sword and fatally wounded him. Hundreds of rebels were executed, and the rest dispersed after the mayor brought armed troops. The Peasants' Revolt was put down in the next few days, and Richard revoked all promises he had made to the peasants. Wat Tyler's head was displayed on a pole in a London field for several weeks afterwards.

 

Want to find out more about the Peasants' Revolt and Wat Tyler? Click here for more information about Wat Tyler, or click here for a part one of a documentary about the Peasants' Revolt. Click here for part two.

June 12 - Assassination of Medgar Evers

This Day in History: 12 June 2020

 

12 June 1963

 

57 years ago, today, Medgar Evers, an African American civil rights leader, was shot to death by a white supremacist outside his home in Mississippi. In the Second World War, Evers had volunteered for the US army, and participated in the invasion of Normandy. In 1952, he joined the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People, also known as the NAACP, and acted as a field worker. He travelled through Mississippi encouraging African Americans to vote and recruited them into the civil rights movement. As well as this, he played a significant role in getting witnesses and compiling evidence for the Emmett Till murder case.

 

After Evers' funeral in Jackson, Mississippi, he was buried with full military honours at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. His death was also condemned by leaders such as President John F. Kennedy. Protests were sparked in 1964 when the first trial of chief suspect Byron De La Beckwith ended with a deadlock by an all-white jury. De La Beckwith was set free after a second all-white jury failed to reach a decision, but the case was reopened three decades later, as it came under pressure from civil rights leaders and Evers' family. Beckwith was finally charged with murder and was sentenced to life imprisonment at the age of 73 and died in 2001.

 

Want to find out more about the life and legacy of Medgar Evers? Click here for more information, or watch the 1996 'Ghosts of Mississippi', as it features a plot based on De La Beckwith's 1994 trial.

June 11 - Henry VIII Marries Catherine of Aragon

This Day in History: 11 June 2020

 

11 June 1509

 

511 years ago, today, King Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon, the first of his six wives. This was a private ceremony with the newly ascended king, in the church of the Observant Friars outside Greenwich Palace. This was actually Catherine's second marriage, with her first being to Henry's brother, Prince Arthur. The wedding was also held on the seventh anniversary of Arthur's death. Because of this, however, the new marriage depended on the Pope granting a dispensation, as canon law forbade a man to marry his brother's widow. Catherine testified that her marriage to Prince Arthur was never consummated, so according to canon law, the marriage was not valid.

 

To Catherine and her followers' dismay, Henry divorced her against the will of the Roman Catholic Church, as she failed to produce the desired male heir. This most likely had a large role in initiating the Protestant Reformation in England. Henry would go on to have five more wives after Catherine, two of whom (Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard) were executed for alleged adultery after they grew tiresome for Henry. Catherine and Henry's only surviving child, Mary, ascended to the throne upon the death of her half-brother, Edward VI. Her reign only lasted 5 years before her sister, Elizabeth, the only surviving child of Henry and Anne Boleyn, was crowned in her place as Queen Elizabeth I.

 

Want to find out more about the marriage of King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon? Click here for more details, or here for historical documentary on Henry and Catherine's marriage.

June 10 - First Execution in the Salem Witch Trials

This Day in History: 10 June 2020

 

10 June 1692

 

328 years ago, today, Bridget Bishop was hanged, marking her as the first woman in Salem to be killed after being accused of practising witchcraft. Trouble in the Puritan community had begun in February, when Elizabeth Parris and Abigail Williams, the daughter and niece of the Reverend Samuel Parris, started to experience fits and exhibited other strange behaviours. This was concluded by a doctor to be the effects of witchcraft, prompting the girls to name those who allegedly were responsible for their suffering. Sarah Good, Sarah Osbourne and Tituba, a slave from Barbados, became the first from Salem to be charged with witchcraft, and soon even more people were accused, most of them being middle-aged women.

 

In June 1693, those who were accused were to be judged by the special Court of Oyer and Terminer, with the first tried being Bridget Bishop, who had more accusations than any other defendant. She was infamous for her dubious moral character, her flamboyant clothing, and her three marriages. Despite proclaiming her innocence, she was found guilty and was executed by hanging. 13 more women and 5 men would follow her to the gallows. Executions were finally ceased in October, with the Court of Oyer and Terminer being dissolved. The Superior Court eventually released all those who were awaiting trial, and pardoned those sentenced to death, effectively ending the Salem witch trials.

 

Want to find out more about the Salem witch trials of 1692? Click here for more information, or here for a cartoon of the events.

June 9 - Death of Emperor Nero

This Day in History: 9 June 2020

 

9 June 68

 

1952 years ago, today, the Roman Emperor Nero committed suicide. The problems he was facing had begun to pile up; he had killed his mother and first wife, and a financial strain was put on the empire, due to the rebuilding of Rome. He was forced to raise taxes wherever he could and take religious treasures. The emperor's support began to crumble as a result, with the Roman governor Gaius Iulius Vindex renouncing Nero, and declaring his support for Galba. Shortly afterwards, the Praetorian Guard, who were in charge of guarding the emperor himself, renounced their support, declaring him an enemy of the people. The following day, he committed suicide, with his long-time mistress Acte by his side.

 

Nero had ascended to power in 54 A.D., after the death of his adopted father, Emperor Claudius. He has become one of the most infamous men in history, notorious for murdering his female relatives and allegedly starting the great fire of Rome in 64 A.D., so that he could re-build the city centre. The blame fell on him for starting the fire, but he still took it upon himself to organise relief efforts. Additionally, he had a passion for music and the arts, and even gave a public performance to Rome in 65 A.D. After his death, the Roman Empire fell into chaos, and short-lived emperors tried to gain control. Supposedly, rumours spread about the emperor's death and people even refused to believe that he was dead.

 

Want to find out more about the life and death of Emperor Nero? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more on his death and its aftermath.

 

June 8 - Death of Prophet Muhammad

This Day in History: 8 June 2020

 

8 June 632

 

1388 years ago, today, Muhammad, the founder of Islam, died in the arms of his third and favourite wife, Aisha. This influential leader was first inspired to preach the religion of Islam in 610, when he experienced a vision in which he heard God command him to become the Arab prophet of the 'true religion'.  Thus, began a lifetime of religious revelations, which was collected in the form of the Qur'an, and provided the foundation for Islam. According to Muhammad himself, he was the last prophet of the Judaic-Christian tradition, and he adopted the theology of these older religions while introducing new rules.

 

By 622, Muhammad had gained a great amount of converts in Mecca, leading the city's authorities to plan his assassination. Muhammad fled to Medina, where he was given a position of political power, allowing him to build a model theocratic state. 7 years later, numerous Arab tribes converted to his new religion, and by his death, he was essentially ruler of all southern Arabia. Even after his death, the Muslim advance was not stopped until the Battle of Tours in France in 732, when the Muslim empire was now among the largest the world had ever seen. The spread of the religion continued voluntarily throughout African and Asian cultures, and thanks to Muhammad, is now the world's second-largest religion.

 

Want to find out more about Muhammad's life? Click here for more, or here for a history of the Islamic faith. Click here for a 10-minute video on how Islam began.

 

June 7 - The Petition of Rights is Passed

This Day in History: 7 June 2020

 

7 June 1628

 

392 years ago, today, the Petition of Rights was passed, severely limiting the power of King Charles I. This was an English document that helped to promote the civil rights of the King's subjects and is one of England's most famous constitutional documents. It was written by Parliament as an objection to an overreach of authority by the king, which English citizens saw as a major breach of their civil rights. The Petition contained four main points: no taxes could be levied without Parliament's consent; no English subject could be imprisoned without cause; no quartering of soldiers in citizens' homes; and no martial law may be used in peacetime.

 

This document was part of a wider conflict between Parliament and the Stuart monarchy that eventually led to the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which was ultimately resolved in the 1688 Glorious Revolution. Following a series of disagreements with Parliament over taxes, Charles imposed 'forced loans' and imprisoned those who refused to pay, without trial. In 1628, martial law was used to force private citizens to feed, clothe and accommodate soldiers and sailors. This implied that the king could take any person's freedom without the need to justify it. It united opposition in society, particularly those who the monarchy depended on for financial support. The document also reportedly influenced elements of the 3^rd, 5^th and 7^th Amendments of the United States constitution, and remains in force today in the United Kingdom and parts of the Commonwealth.

 

Want to find out more about the Petition of Rights? Click here for more information.

 

June 6 - D-Day

This Day in History: 6 June 2020

 

6 June 1944

 

76 years ago, today, Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of northern France, was initiated, which is now commonly known as D-Day. Before this attack, Hitler's armies were in control of most of mainland Europe, and both sides knew a successful invasion of the continent was key to winning the war. The invasion conducted by the Allies was the largest ever assembled, consisting of 156,000 Allies troops on the sea and in air, on five beachheads in Normandy. D-Day was the start of Allied operations which would ultimately liberate Western Europe, defeat the Nazis and end the Second World War.

 

When any military operation is being planned, its actual date and time is not always known, so the term 'D-Day' was used to mean the date on which operations would begin, whenever the date may be. The 'D' is commonly thought to stand for 'deliverance', 'doom', 'debarkation' and similar words, but it actually does not stand for anything. It is instead derived from the word 'day'. As well as this, many people think that the troops that landed on the D-Day beaches were only from Great Britain, Canada and the United States, but this is also not true. Other countries that participated include Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Greece, New Zealand and Poland. By the time the assault phase of Operation Overlord had ended, also known as Operation Neptune, the Allies had established a firm foothold in Normandy.

 

Want to find out more about D-Day? Click here for more information, or perhaps watch a film depicting the bravery of the D-Day troops. Options include 'The Longest Day' (1962) and 'Saving Private Ryan' (1998).

 

June 5 - The Six-Day War Begins

This Day in History: 5 June 2020

 

5 June 1967

 

53 years ago, today, Israel responded to a build-up of Arab forces along its borders by launching attacks against Egypt and Syria, initiating the Six-Day War. Jordan subsequently entered the battle, but the nations were no match for Israel's superior armed forces. In the six days of fighting, Israel managed to occupy the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt, the Golan Heights of Syria, and the West Bank and Arab sector of East Jerusalem, that were previously under Jordanian rule. On June 11, a United Nations cease-fire took place, but Israel had more than doubled its size. When Israel claimed the Old City of Jerusalem from Jordan, many wept in prayer at the Western Wall.

 

Nevertheless, the UN Security Council requested Israel to withdraw from the occupied regions, but they declined, and instead set up military administrations in the territories. They let it be known that the claimed areas would be returned in exchange for Arab recognition of the right of Israel to exist and guarantees against future attack. When Arab leaders met to discuss this, they decided upon a policy of no peace, no negotiations and no recognition of Israel, as well as plans to defend the rights of the Palestinian Arabs in the occupied territories. However, Egypt would eventually negotiate with Israel, resulting in the return of the Sinai Peninsula, in exchange for full diplomatic recognition of Israel. The claims to the Gaza Strip and the West Bank were given to the Palestinians, who opened 'land for peace' talks with Israel in the 1990s. Despite this, a permanent Israeli-Palestinian peace agreement remains unsettled.

 

Want to find out more about the Six-Day War? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more details on the matter.

 

June 4 - Tiananmen Square Massacre

This Day in History: 4 June 2020

 

4 June 1989

 

31 years ago, today, the Tiananmen Square Massacre occurred when Chinese troops killed and arrested thousands of pro-democracy protestors. This act of brutality from the Chinese government shocked the West and lead to the United States imposing sanctions and denunciations onto China. Prior to this, nearly a million Chinese had crowded into central Beijing to protest for greater democracy and call for the resignations of the Chinese Communist Party leaders. These protesters maintained this daily, marching and chanting through the streets. However, they were eventually met with Chinese troops that fired indiscriminately into the crowds. Some protestors tried to escape, but others fought back. Reporters estimated that at least 300 had been killed, and as many as 10,000 were arrested.

 

The atrocities committed by the Chinese government shocked its allies and enemies during the ongoing Cold War. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev declared his sadness over the events in China and said that he hoped the government would adopt his own domestic reforms. In the United States, President George Bush was pressed by editorialists and Congress to punish the Chinese government. This came in the form of a US Congress vote, a little more than 3 weeks later, calling for economic sanctions to be imposed upon China in response to the human rights violation.

 

Want to find out more about the Tiananmen Square Massacre and protests? Click here for more information, or here for a video where protestors recount the events.

 

June 3 - Edward VIII Marries Wallis Simpson

This Day in History: 3 June 2020

 

3 June 1937

 

83 years ago, today, the Duke of Windsor, formerly known as King Edward VIII, married Wallis Simpson, an American divorcee. The year prior, he had abdicated the British throne in order to marry her. Before this took place, Wallis had finalised her divorce, and had her surname legally changed. The two married at the Chateau de Cande in France's Loire Valley, with the ceremony conducted by a clergyman, witnessed by only around 16 guests. After the marriage, Wallis acquired the title of the Duchess of Windsor, but King George VI, under pressure from his ministers, denied her the title of 'royal highness', that was enjoyed by her husband.

 

Edward and Wallis had met and fell in love in 1934, despite Wallis' marriage to Ernest Simpson, an English-American businessman. Before this, Wallis had also been married and divorced to a US Navy pilot. The royal family disapproved of Edward's married mistress, but 2 years later, he had his heart set on marrying her. To the Church of England and many British politicians, to marry an American woman twice divorced was unacceptable. Before this could be discussed, however, Edward's father, George V, died, leading Edward to be proclaimed as King. Still, he proposed a morganatic marriage, where Wallis would be granted no rights of rank or property, but Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin rejected this. With no resolution possible, the king renounced the throne on December 10. Throughout their marriage, they lived mainly in Paris, where Edward would die, but the couple nevertheless were buried together, after their deaths, at Frogmore, on the grounds of Windsor Castle.

 

Want to find out more about the truth of the marriage between the Duke of Windsor and Wallis Simpson? Click here for more information.

 

June 2 - Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II

This Day in History: 2 June 2020

 

2 June 1953

 

67 years ago, today, Queen Elizabeth II was formally crowned as the monarch of the United Kingdom. This took place in a lavish ceremony that was attended by a thousand dignitaries and guests, at Westminster Abbey. Millions additionally listened on their radio, and for the first time were able to watch the event on live television. In the procession that followed, through the streets of London, Elizabeth and her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, were joined by representatives from more than 40 member states of the Commonwealth. After the parade, Elizabeth stood with her family on the balcony of Buckingham Palace, waving to the crowd as jet planes from the Royal Air Force flew across the sky.

 

Despite her coronation taking place in 1953, she had been proclaimed as the new British monarch in early 1952, after the death of her father, King George VI. However, she remained in seclusion for her first three months, taking the time to mourn. In the summer of 1952, she began to perform routine sovereign duties, and carried out her first state opening of Parliament in November. Throughout her reign of more than six decades, her popularity has hardly decreased. She has travelled more than any other British monarch and was the first to visit South America and the Persian Gulf countries. Most notably, however, she became the longest-reigning British monarch in 2015, surpassing the reign of her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria. Recently, she has begun to hand off some official duties to her children, especially Prince Charles, the heir to the British throne, but she has given no indication of an intention to abdicate.

 

Want to find out more about the life and coronation of Queen Elizabeth II? Click here for more information on her life, or here for more details on her coronation.

 

June 1 - The Glorious First of June

This Day in History: 1 June 2020

 

1 June 1794

 

226 years ago, today, the Fourth Battle of Ushant, more commonly known as the Glorious First of June, was fought. This was the first and largest fleet action of naval conflict between Great Britain and the French Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars. It had been the result of the Atlantic campaign that occurred the previous month, where both sides managed to capture many merchant ships. The British Channel Fleet, commanded under Admiral Lord Howe, had attempted to prevent the passage of a vital French grain convoy, but this was protected by Rear-Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse. The two sides engaged in conflict in the Atlantic Ocean, west of the French island of Ushant.

 

During the battle, Howe subverted naval conventions by ordering his fleet to engage with their immediate opponent. This subsequently was not understood by all of his captains, so the attack was more disorganised than intended. However, his ships were still able to inflict a tactical defeat on the French, but both sides were left shattered and in no state for further combat. Villaret had brought enough time for the French to reach safety, resulting in a strategic success, but allowed the British to conduct a blockade campaign for the rest of the war. Both sides claimed victory, and the press of both nations proclaimed their country's bravery.

 

Want to find out more about the Glorious First of June? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more details on the event.