March 31 - Eiffel Tower Completion

This Day in History: 31 March 2020

 

31 March 1889

 

131 years ago, today, the Eiffel Tower was opened in Paris, in a ceremony led by Gustave Eiffel, the tower's designer. This was also attended by the French Prime Minister, Pierre Tirard, some other key figures, and 200 construction workers. The monument was built on the Champ-de-Mars in central Paris, through a design competition to honour the centenary of the French Revolution. Eiffel's plan of an almost 1,000 foot, open-lattice tower was chosen by the Centennial Committee, but the tower was met with scepticism from critics. They argued that it would be unstable, and an eyesore in the heart of Paris. Despite this, Eiffel completed his project under budget in just two years. Only one worker lost their life, which at the time was a significantly low casualty number.

 

Today, the Eiffel Tower stands at 984 feet tall, consisting of an iron framework, with platforms that each hold an observation deck. The tower also has lifts that the Otis Elevator Company of the United States helped Eiffel to design, meaning the lifts were the only part of the building not completed by March 31, so Eiffel instead ascended the tower's stairs at the ceremony, raising the French tricolour on the structure's flagpole. Fireworks were then set off from the second platform. The Eiffel Tower was the world's tallest man-made structure, until the completion of the Chrysler Building in New York in 1930. In 1909, the building's lease on the land expired, and so the tower was almost demolished, but its usage as an antenna saved it. In our modern society, it is one of the world's most famous landmarks and tourist attractions.

 

Want to find out more about the history and origins of the Eiffel Tower? Click here for more information.

March 30 - Treaty of Paris Signed

This Day in History: 30 March 2020

 

30 March 1856

 

164 years ago, today, the Treaty of Paris was signed, between Russia on one side, and France, Great Britain, Sardinia-Piedmont, and Turkey on the other, which ended the Crimean War. The treaty gave special attention to the problem that the western Europe powers had fought over, and that was the protection of Ottoman Turkey from Russia. By signing the agreement, the independence and territorial integrity was guaranteed of Turkey, and Russia was obliged to surrender Bessarabia to Moldavia. Along with Walachia, the two were reorganised as autonomous states, and these two areas were later joined to form Romania. The Black Sea was also neutralised, meaning that its waters were closed to all warships, and the Danube was opened to the shipping of all nations.

 

In 1870, Russia refused to acknowledge the demilitarisation of the Black Sea, and so began to rebuild its naval fleet there, and the Allies were unable to stop them. A clause in the Treaty also required Russia to abandon religious excuses to interfere in the Turkish Empire, but again, Russia failed to honour this clause. In 1876, the Turks managed to crush a Bulgarian rising using the Bashi-Bazooks, and following this, Russia acted as a protector of the Slavs and Christians, and so invaded Turkey.

 

Want to find out more about the Treaty of Paris, and its outcomes? Click here for more information.

 

March 29 - The Battle of Towton

This Day in History: 29 March 2020

 

29 March 1461

 

559 years ago, today, the Battle of Towton took place, which was one of the many battles waged during the War of the Roses, resulting in Yorkist victory. Although the Lancastrian King, Henry VI, had given the right of succession to Richard, Duke of York, his wife, Queen Margaret, was not prepared to accept an arrangement that would deprive her son of his birth right. At the time, England was almost a country of two kings, Henry VI and Duke Edward of York, and so the matter would be settled on the battlefield. After the death of his father, Richard, at the previous Battle of Wakefield, the Yorkist Edward marched his followers to battle against Henry.

 

The two armies, both ranging around 30,000 men, confronted each other in the middle of a snowstorm, on an open field, between the villages of Towton and Saxton. The brutal fighting lasted for several hours, until towards the end of the day, as the Lancastrian line crumbled, and many were killed after they had surrendered. Due to this large loss, the Lancastrians were unable to create a field army for another three years. However, this did not stop King Henry and his family escaping to Scotland. This battle was possibly the largest and bloodiest battle every fought on English soil, as estimates of the dead range from 9,000 to 20,000. In 1996, a mass grave was uncovered that contained 46 skeletons, and the analysis of their injuries reflect the brutality of the battle.

 

Want to find out more about the Battle of Towton? Click here for more information, or here for a 45+ minute documentary on the battle.

 

March 28 - Worst US Nuclear Power Accident

This Day in History: 28 March 2020

 

28 March 1979

 

41 years ago, today, the worst nuclear power accident occurred in the United States. The Three Mile Island plant, near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, was a brand-new facility, praised for its state-of-the-art design, its efficiency and affordability during an era of an energy crisis. However, as a pressure valve in the Unit-2 reactor at the plant failed to close, the accident begun. Cooling water drained from this valve, that became contaminated with radiation, into nearby buildings, causing the core to dangerously overheat. Control room operators made critical errors as they struggled to contain and stop the accident, and by the early morning, the core had heated to over 4,000 degrees, only slightly short of a meltdown.

 

Word of the incident leaked to the outside world when radioactive steam poured out of the plant. Despite this, the plant's parent company downplayed the event, as they claimed no radiation had been detected outside the plant grounds. This was later proven false, as within days, radiation levels increased, and pregnant women and small children were even evacuated. Soon after, plant workers were able to address the problem, and ended the meltdown threat. No deaths or injuries were reported, but there has been an ongoing debate since the incident over whether the radiation led to increased cancer and infant mortality rates in the region.

 

Want to find out more about the Three Mile Island nuclear disaster? Click here for more details, and for more information about the history of the plant, click here.

 

March 27 - FDA Approves Viagra

This Day in History: 27 March 2020

 

27 March 1998

 

22 years ago, today, the FDA approved the use of Viagra, an oral medication to treat impotence. The chemical name for Viagra was sildenafil, an artificial compound that was originally meant to treat high blood pressure, and angina. However, chemists at the Pfizer pharmaceutical company found that the drug had little effect on angina but could induce penile erections within 30-60 minutes. These chemists saw a large economic opportunity, so Pfizer marketed the drug for impotence. Gaining the patent in 1996, it was approved by the FDA in a surprisingly short amount of time for use in treating 'erectile dysfunction'. It is also thought the drug was invented by Peter Dunn and Albert Wood, although this is unconfirmed.

 

Viagra was a massive success, as in the first year alone, the pills made about a billion dollars in sales. It also had an enormous impact on the public and medical industries. An estimated one in five men in the United Kingdom suffer from erectile dysfunction, and after Viagra's success, competitors began to swarm the market. Despite this, the long-term effects of Viagra on men's health are unclear, but its popularity shows no sign of decreasing.

 

Want to find out more about the legacy and history of Viagra? Click here for more details.

 

March 26 - Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty

This Day in History: 26 March 2020

 

26 March 1979

 

41 years ago, today, a historic peace agreement between Israeli Prime Minister, Menachem Begin, and Egyptian President, Anwar el-Sadat, was signed at the White House, ending three decades of tension between the two countries. Less than two years earlier, Sadat had travelled to Jerusalem, an unexpected action for an Arab leader, to seek permanent peace with his country's Jewish neighbour after many years of conflict. This visit involved him meeting with Begin and speaking before the Israeli parliament. However, this was met with outrage in most of the Arab world. Despite this, peace was pursued, and in September 1978, the two met again in the United States. Here, they negotiated an agreement with President Jimmy Carter, at Camp David, Maryland, forming the Camp David Accords, one of the first peace agreements with Israel and an Arab neighbour.

 

This agreement laid the groundwork for diplomatic and commercial relations, and seven months later, a formal treaty was signed. For this achievement, Begin and Sadat were awarded jointly the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize. Still, Sadat's efforts were not as highly acclaimed in the Arab world, and as a result, Egypt was suspended from the Arab League. On October 6, 1981, Muslim extremists assassinated Sadat in Cairo, Egypt's capital. Nevertheless, the peace process continued in Sadat's absence, and a year later, Egypt formally established diplomatic relations with Israel.

 

Want to find out more about the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty? Click here for more information.

 

March 25 - Assassination of King Faisal

This Day in History: 25 March 2020

 

25 March 1975

 

45 years ago, today, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia was assassinated by his nephew, Prince Faisal. King Faisal, the son of King Ibn Saud, had fought in the military campaigns of the 1920s and 1930s that helped create modern Saudi Arabia. Later on, he served as Saudi ambassador to the United Nations, and in 1953, was made premier upon the ascension of his older brother, Saud. More than a decade later, unfortunately, his brother was pressured to abdicate, resulting in Faisal becoming the ruler. While King, he aimed to modernise the nation, while lending financial and moral support to anti-Israeli causes in the Middle East.

 

However, things took a turn for the worse at the Royal Palace in Riyadh, where the King was holding a reception. His nephew joined the Kuwaiti delegation that had lined up to meet Faisal, who recognised the prince immediately, and so bent his head forward for his nephew to kiss him, as a sign of respect. Instead, Prince Faisal took out a revolver from his robe and shot the King twice in the head. The third shot missed, inconsequentially, and the prince threw the gun away, as the King fell to the floor. His nephew would have been murdered by royal bodyguards, if it was not for Saudi oil minister, Ahmed Zaki Yamani, who yelled repeatedly not to kill the prince. However, Prince Faisal was still arrested, and beheaded in the public square of Riyadh. The king's body was buried the next day, and his successor, King Khalid, wept over his body at the funeral.

 

Want to find out more about the life of King Faisal and his assassination? Click here for more information.

 

March 24 - Death of Queen Elizabeth I

This Day in History: 24 March 2020

 

24 March 1603

 

417 years ago, today, Queen Elizabeth I of England died, after 44 years of ruling over her country. As she left behind a lack of an heir, King James VI of Scotland ascended to the throne, which united the English and Scottish kingdoms under a single British monarch. As the daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, she succeeded to the throne in 1559 after the death of her half-sister, Queen Mary. The two had a stormy relationship during Mary's reign, as she was a Catholic, who made efforts to restore the Pope to supremacy in England, after her father's Reformation. This brought about a Protestant rebellion, so Mary imprisoned Elizabeth, a Protestant, on suspicion of complicity. Elizabeth also faced many Catholic plots in her own reign, but her ascension was greeted with approval by most of England's lords, who were mainly Protestant.

 

In her foreign affairs, Elizabeth practised a policy of strengthening her allies and dividing her foes. She was opposed by the Pope, who refused to recognise her legitimacy, and by Spain, a Catholic nation. The English-Spanish rivalry led to a Spanish invasion in 1588, in which the Spanish Armada, the greatest naval force in the world at the time, was destroyed by storms and a resilient English navy. With England's power at sea, Elizabeth encouraged voyages to discover new lands, prompting Sir Francis Drake's vast exploration. Elizabeth became known as the 'Virgin Queen' for her reluctance to hinder her authority through marrying, causing her to be the final Tudor monarch as she did not bear an heir. By her death in 1603, caused most likely by sepsis, England became a major world power, and Elizabeth passed into history as one of England's greatest monarchs.

 

Want to find out more about the life and reign of Queen Elizabeth I? Click here for more information and facts you may not have known about the Queen. Click here to read more about the possible causes of her death.

 

March 23 - 'O.K' Is First Used

This Day in History: 23 March 2020

 

23 March 1839

 

181 years ago, today, the initials 'O.K.' were published in the 'Boston Morning Post' for the first time, as an abbreviation for 'ollkorrect', which was a popular slang misspelling of 'all correct'. This gradually made its way into the everyday dialect of societies around the globe. During this time, in the late 1830s, it was an enjoyed practise among the younger, more educated groups to intentionally misspell words, and then abbreviate them to use as slang, when talking to each other. Some may find parallels with this and how teenagers today use their own slang based on distorted words and phrases. Other abbreviations from this period included 'KG', for 'know go', meaning 'no go', and 'OW' for 'oll wright', meaning 'all right'.

 

Out of all the abbreviations used during that era, OK was put into the limelight when it was printed in the 'Boston Morning Post' as a joke. However, its popularity expanded when it was picked up by politicians from the time, most notably President Martin Van Buren. He was up for re-election, so his Democratic supporters organised a band of thugs to influence the American voters, formally called the 'O.K. Club', referencing Van Buren's nickname 'Old Kinderhook', based on his hometown, and the newly popular term. Meanwhile, the opposing Whig Party made use of the abbreviation to criticise Van Buren's political mentor, Andrew Jackson, as he supposedly invented 'O.K.' to cover up his own misspelling of 'all correct'.

 

Want to find out more about the history of 'OK', as well as its variations and usage? Click here for more information.

 

March 22 - Creation of the Arab League

This Day in History: 22 March 2020

 

22 March 1945

 

75 years ago, today, the Arab League was formed, consisting of representatives from Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Yemen. The group met in Cairo to establish this regional organisation of Arab states, that was created to foster economic growth in the region, while resolving conflicts between its members and coordinating political aims. The members of the Arab League formed a council, where each state received one vote. Later, 15 more Arab nations joined the group, which helped to establish a common market in 1965.

 

The idea for an Arab League was proposed and discussed by the British in 1942, as they wanted to rally Arab counties against the Axis powers in World War Two, who consisted of Germany, Italy, and Japan. However, the league did not take off until just before the end of the war. At the time, the issues that dominated the states' agendas were freeing the Arab counties that were still under colonial rule and preventing the Jewish community in Palestine from forming a Jewish state. Throughout the years, the organisation's effectiveness was hindered by divisions, as, for example, during the Cold War, some members supported the Soviets, whereas others were in favour of the West. There has also been rivalry over leadership, most significantly between Egypt and Iraq.

 

Want to find out more about the Arab League's history, creation and its status today? Click here for more information.

 

Interesting Tudor Podcasts and Articles

Hello Nonsuch HP Blog readers,

 

Today we have found some interesting articles and podcasts from the 'History Extra' website about the Tudors and many important individuals in this era. The articles may require you to sign up for an account for free, so be weary of that if you would like to have a read. These would be very enlightening and fascinating to any Nonsuch students taking A-Level History as it fits extremely well with the course!

• Here is a podcast discussing the beginnings of the Tudor dynasty, focusing on King Henry VII, titled 'The Origins of the Tudors'
• Here is an article detailing the life of Margaret Beaufort, the mother of King Henry VII, titled 'Margaret Beaufort: Mother of the Tudors'
• Here is an article describing the marriages of Catherine of Aragon with Arthur Tudor, Henry VII's son, and his brother, Henry Tudor, also known as King Henry VIII, titled 'Arthur, Catherine and Henry: A Story of Early Tudor Triumph and Tragedy'
• Here, lastly, is an article on Elizabeth of York, Henry VII's wife and Henry VIII's mother, titled 'Elizabeth of York: A Tudor of Rare Talent'

We hope everyone finds these informative and thought-provoking in this slightly tedious period we are facing!

 

March 21 - The Napoleonic Code Established

This Day in History: 21 March 2020

 

21 March 1804

 

216 years ago, today, French Emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, instituted a new legal structure, after four years of debates, known as the 'Napoleonic Code'. This gave a civil code to post-revolutionary France, as it was the first logical set of laws that concerned property, colonial affairs, the family and individual rights. When the planning started, General Napoleon Bonaparte began the tedious task of reassessing France's ineffective legal system, as he was the country's new dictator. To do this, he established a special commission, led by J.J. Cambaceres, that met more than 80 times to thoroughly discuss the revolutionary legal revisions. Napoleon dominated over nearly half of these meetings, and in March 1804, the Napoleonic Code was finally approved.

 

This code consisted of several branches of law, including commercial and criminal, while also dividing civil law into categories of property and family. The legal framework also made the authority of men over their families stronger, and so deprived women of any individual rights, and also reduced the rights of illegitimate children. Every male citizen was given equal rights under the law, however, and the right to religious disagreement. Despite this, colonial slavery was reintroduced. These laws applied to all territories that were under Napoleon's control, and so were influential in many other European countries and in South America.

 

Want to find out more about Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic Code? Click here for more information.

 

March 20 - Death of Henry IV

This Day in History: 20 March 2020 

 

20 March 1413 

 

607 years ago, today, King Henry IV, the first English monarch of the Lancastrian dynasty, died after years of being plagued by illness, leaving his son, Henry V, to succeed him. 14 years prior, Henry Bolingbroke was crowned as King Henry IV of England, as the previous king, King Richard II, was forced to abdicate, as he was greatly weakened by the conflict within Parliament. In his last years, Henry IV was a chronic individual, and his son began to have power over the king's royal council, whilst he led armies against the Welsh. Owen Glendower and the Welsh rebels were fighting against the prince, who gained an English victory over them at the Battle of Shrewsbury.  

 

According to Raphael Holinshed, it was predicted that Henry would die in Jerusalem, which Shakespeare's play, Henry IV, also repeated. Henry took this to mean he would die on a crusade, and in reality, he did die in the Jerusalem Chamber, in the abbot's house of Westminster Abbey, during a legislative session. His executor, Thomas Langley, was at his side. Henry V was later crowned on 9 April, at Westminster Abbey, but the ceremony was marked by a terrible snowstorm, which the common people could not decide if it was a good or bad omen.  

 

Want to read more about the life and death of Henry IV? Click here for more information.  

Nonsuch HP Blog Update

COVID-19 Update

Dear reader,

Despite the closure of schools across the country, the Nonsuch HP Blog will continue to post during the pandemic. We hope every history lover will continue to read our posts during this period!

Thank you,

The Nonsuch HP Blog

March 19 - Execution of German General Fromm

This Day in History: 19 March 2020

 

19 March 1945

 

75 years ago, today, the commander of the German Home Army, General Friedrich Fromm, was executed by the firing squad for his part in the July plot against the Fuhrer, Adolf Hitler, although his participation was half-hearted. The year prior, many of Germany's high-ranking officials had come to the decision that Hitler must die, as he was leading the country into a suicidal war. Assassination, they thought, was the only way to stop him. The plan was that a coup d'état would follow, and a new government was be instituted in Berlin to save Germany from the destruction of the Allies, but this was not successful. Fromm was in favour of the plot but agreed only to cooperate actively in the coup if the assassination was successful.

 

On July 20, 1944, Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg planted the bomb in a conference that Hitler would be attending, in a briefcase under a table. However, this was moved by Hitler, far away from where he was standing. The bomb still detonated, resulting in Hitler being wounded, charred, and suffering the temporary paralysis of one of his arms, but he was still alive. Stauffenberg was on his way back to Berlin to discuss Operation Valkyrie, involving the overthrow of the central government, but General Fromm ordered him and his men to be arrested. Once he found out that Hitler was still alive, Fromm also commanded that the conspirators be shot for treason. Within the next few days, Fromm himself was arrested by Heinrich Himmler, and in February 1945, he faced trial. Due to his decision to execute Stauffenberg and his partners, he was spared the worst punishment – strangulation on a meat hook, and instead was shot by the firing squad, on this day.

 

Want to find out more about the death of Friedrich Fromm? Click here for more information or here for more of an insight on his life.

 

March 18 - Tri-State Tornado

This Day in History: 18 March 2020

 

18 March 1925

 

95 years ago, today, the worst tornado in American history occurred in eastern Missouri, southern Illinois and southern Indiana, resulting in the deaths of 695 people, the injuries of 13,000 people, and property damage of $17 million. This was known as the 'Tri-State Tornado'. The deadly twister began its track through Ellington, Missouri, but it hit hardest in southern Illinois. Here, 500 out of the total 695 people were killed. In Indiana, the tornado destroyed the towns of Griffin, Owensville, and Princeton, and 85 farms in between, disrupting the lives of everyone it encountered.

 

A tornado is a dark, funnel cloud, that contains violent, rotating air. They develop in climate conditions that are unique to the central and southern plains, and can gain a speed up to 300 mph, while having a diameter of varying width, possibly varying from a few feet to a mile. This natural disaster generally travels in a northeast distance, at around a speed of 30 mph. The Tri-State Tornado traveled 219 miles and spent more than 3 hours on the ground. It devasted everything in its path for 164 miles, and had a diameter of more than a mile, while it traveled at speeds of more than 70 mph, the worst in US history.

 

Want to find out more about the Tri-State Tornado of 1925? Click here to find out more, or here for a video.

 

March 17 - Death of Saint Patrick

This Day in History: 17 March 2020

 

17 March 461

 

1559 years ago, today, Saint Patrick, a Christian missionary, bishop and apostle of Ireland, died at Saul, Downpatrick, in Ireland. Much of what is known about his life comes from the book 'Confessio', which he wrote during his last years. He was born in Great Britain, to a Christian family, but was captured and enslaved at 16 years old by Irish raiders. In this role, for the next few years, he worked as a herder in Ireland, using his faith to comfort him. One night, Patrick had a dream where a voice led him to escape back to Britain, where he reunited with his family. This was not his only mystical dream, as he had another in which he was given a letter, hearing voices of pleading Irishmen as he read it, thus inspiring him to become ordained as a bishop. He travelled back to Ireland, and began to preach the Gospel, converting thousands of the Irish, as he built churches around the country. After 40 years of living in poverty, while teaching and travelling, he died on this day.

 

Since then, many legends have grown around Patrick. He was made the patron saint of Ireland, as he is said to have baptised hundreds of people on a single day, and to have used the Irish shamrock to describe the Holy Trinity. In art, one may also see him trampling snakes, as it is believed that he drove the reptiles out of Ireland. Saint Patrick's death is celebrated as a religious holiday, as believers attend church and celebrate with food and drink later on. Today, Saint Patrick's Day is an occasion for international celebration, as millions of people put on their green clothing to drink beer, watch parades and toast the Irish luck.

 

Want to find out more about the history of Saint Patrick's Day? Click here for more information.

 

March 16 - My Lai Massacre

This Day in History: 16 March 2020

 

16 March 1968

 

52 years ago, today, a group of American soldiers brutally killed around 500 unarmed civilians at My Lai, a cluster of small villages located near the north coast of South Vietnam. This crime was kept secret for nearly two years, and later became known as the My Lai Massacre. The soldiers, from Charlie Company, had received word that Viet Cong guerrillas had taken cover in the Quang Ngai village of Son My, and so entered one of the village's four hamlets, My Lai 4, on a search-and-rescue mission. Instead of finding guerrilla fighters, they saw unarmed villagers, mostly consisting of women, children and old men.

 

Despite the absence of a threat, the soldiers had been advised prior the attack that all who were found in My Lai could be considered Viet Cong, or sympathisers, so were commanded to destroy the village. They raped and tortured the villagers before killing them; they dragged dozens of people, including children and babies, into a ditch, before executing them with automatic weapons. The massacre only ended when an Army helicopter pilot, Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, landed between the soldiers and the retreating villagers. He threatened to open fire if they continued to attack. These events were covered up by powerful army officers until journalist Seymour Hersh broke the story of the tragedy.

 

Want to find out more about the horrific My Lai Massacre? Click here for more details, or here for a video with information on the matter.

 

March 15 - Hitler Invades Czechoslovakia

This Day in History: 15 March 2020

 

15 March 1939

 

81 years ago, today, Hitler's forces invaded and occupied Czechoslovakia. On September 30 of the previous year, Hitler, Benito Mussolini, French Premier, Edouard Daladier, and British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, signed the Munich Pact, sealing the fate of Czechoslovakia, thus handing it over to Germany, in an attempt to secure peace. However, the agreement was only to give Hitler Sudetenland, the part of Czechoslovakia where 3 million German lived. It also permitted the Nazis' 66% of the country's coal, and 70% of its iron, steel and electricity. Without these resources, the nation was left vulnerable to Germany's domination. Rumours continued to circulate around Czechoslovakia of this possibility, no matter what their government did to please Hitler.

 

Slovakia declared its independence, and complete German dependence, on March 14, after Hitler had made it clear in a speech a few months prior that he had intended to force the Czechoslovakian government to give Slovakia this independence. The next day, during a meeting with Czech President, Emil Hacha, who was considered weak and old, Hitler threatened to bomb Prague, unless he was given free passage for German troops to enter the Czech borders, which he received. The same day, German troops immediately stormed into Bohemia and Moravia, and were met with no resistance. A few hours later, Hitler victoriously entered Prague. Hitler's invasion of the country made it clear that the Munich Pact was not for peace but was in fact a negotiating ploy for Hitler.

 

Want to find out more about Hitler's invasion of Czechoslovakia? Click here to read more, or click here to watch a video on the event.

 

March 14 - Release of the Birmingham Six from Prison

This Day in History: 14 March 2020

 

14 March 1991

 

29 years ago, today, the British authorities released the 'Birmingham Six' after widespread questioning of their guilt. These were six Irish men, who were sent to prison 16 years prior, for the 1974 terrorist bombings of two Birmingham pubs. On November 21, 1974, two bombs belonging to the IRA, the Irish Republican Army, exploded on two pubs in Birmingham, resulting in the deaths of 21 people, and the injuries of hundreds. These attacks were part of the conflict between the British government and the IRA over the status of Northern Ireland's independence. Days after these bombings, the British government forbade the IRA from entering the whole of the United Kingdom, and an arrest was rushed to the IRA members responsible. Six suspects were arrested, and interrogated, where four of them confessed. However, the IRA declared that the six were not members.

 

During their trial, those convicted pleaded innocent, and claimed that the police had beaten the confessions out of them, however prosecutors denied this, and provided forensic evidence that would prove the guilt of the Birmingham Six. As a result, they were sentenced to lengthy prison terms. In 1985, scientists deemed the evidence as unreliable, and a judge came to the same conclusion two years later. It was not until this day, as people across Britain and Ireland called for their release, that the Birmingham Six were freed. Seven years later, their sentences were formally overturned, due to doubts about the police evidence, and the suspects' treatment while facing interrogation.

 

Want to find out more about the Birmingham Six, and their wrongful accusation and sentence? Click here for more information.

 

March 13 - Uranus is Discovered

This Day in History: 13 March 2020

 

13 March 1781

 

239 years ago, today, Uranus was discovered by astronomer William Herschel, and now is the seventh planet away from the sun. This planet discovery was the first to be made in our modern era, and the first to be made using a telescope, allowing Herschel to distinguish Uranus as a planet, and not a star, as others before him believed. Herschel was later knighted for his finding and named the planet the 'Georgian Planet' in honour of King George III. In contrast, fellow astronomer, Johann Bode, proposed the name 'Uranus', after its celestial connotations, in order to fit in with the mythology-based names of the other planets. Uranus was the ancient Greek god of the heavens, and a predecessor of the Olympian gods. Soon after, in the century, it was the generally accepted name of the planet.

 

Uranus is one of the gas giant planets, along with Jupiter and Saturn, and is a collection of hydrogen, helium, and methane. It is also the third largest planet, that orbits the sun once every 84 earthly years. As well as this, it is the only planet to spin perpendicular to its solar orbital plane. Almost 200 years after the planet's discovery, the unmanned US spacecraft, Voyager 2, visited its surface, and discovered ten more moons to the previously known five moons. A system of faint rings was also found to spin around the gas giant.

 

Want to find out more about the gas giant, Uranus? Click here to read more.

 

March 12- Coke is Bottled for the First Time

This Day in History: 12 March 2020

 

12 March 1894

 

126 years ago, today, Coca-Cola was first sold in glass bottles. At the start of its existence, the drink was only available as a fountain drink, and its producer saw no reason for this to change. Coke was originally created as a non-addictive substitute for morphine, invented by John Pemberton, who was a druggist in Columbus, Georgia, in 1886. It became rapidly popular, but the rights transferred to Asa Griggs Candler, whose nephew had advised him that selling the drinks in bottles could increase sales. However, Candler apparently was not interested. Joseph A. Biedenharn, the owner of a candy store in Vicksburg, Mississippi, put the drink into Hutchinson bottles. This was a common and reusable glass bottle, that had no resemblance to the modern Coke bottle.

 

A few years later, Candler sold the bottling rights to Coke for a dollar to two brothers from Chattanooga but did not allow it to be bottled in Vicksburg. He was still convinced that the bottle would not be a major source of money, and reportedly never even collected the dollar. In 1915, the bottlers put out a call for a new, distinctive design, so one could recognise it if it were in pieces on the ground, or by feeling it in the dark. The winning design was produced by the Root Glass Company of Terre Haute, Indiana, giving the world its iconic bottle that we know today.

 

Want to find out more about the history of Coke contour bottles? Click here for more information.

 

March 11 - Gorbachev is Selected as USSR President

This Day in History: 11 March 2020

 

11 March 1985

 

35 years ago, today, Mikhail Gorbachev was selected as the new general secretary and leader of the Soviet Union, after the death of Konstantin Chernenko. As leader, Gorbachev oversaw the radical transformation of the Soviet society, and the end to the Cold War. In the Communist Party, he was extremely active, and began a rapid rise through its bureaucracy, and part of his success was due to his intelligence and drive. As well as this, his ability to attach to important people, such as Yuri Andropov, was vital in Gorbachev's promotion to the Central Committee of the Communist Party in 1971. Over the next decade, Gorbachev strived to promote his own career and to support Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev, but when Brezhnev died, Andropov took power, and Gorbachev's role in government was expanded.

 

It was widely assumed that Gorbachev would succeed Andropov, but he did not, due to suspicions of his reform-centered mind, and so Chernenko was elected instead. However, Chernenko died after less than a year later, and so Gorbachev was selected to become the new leader, on this day. In office, Gorbachev led the nation through fast domestic reforms and foreign policy alterations, relaxed political oppression and tried to save the Soviet economy. He worked hard to secure better relations with the United States, succeeding in signing the INF Treaty in 1987, reducing the number of medium-range missiles in Europe. However, change may have been too rapid, as the Soviet Union was crumbling to pieces by the late-1980s. Satellite states were breaking free, and the economy was failing. In December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president, and the Soviet Union ceased to exist.

 

Want to find out more about the life and legacy of Mikhail Gorbachev? Click here to find out more.

 

March 10 - Tibetan Uprising

This Day in History: 10 March 2020

 

10 March 1959

 

61 years ago, today, Tibetans joined one another in a revolt of defiance against the Chinese occupation forces, as they surrounded the summer palace of the Dalai Lama. China had occupied Tibet nearly a decade prior, in October 1950, when troops from the PLA, the People's Liberation Army, invaded the country. This occurred just over a year after the Communists had gained full control of China. Tibet's government caved under Chinese pressure the next year, and so signed a treaty that ensured the power of the Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader, over Tibet's domestic affairs. Resistance built over the next few years, but by December 1958, rebellion was simmering in Lhasa, the capital, and the PLA threatened to bomb the city, unless all was controlled.

 

The Lhasa uprising was triggered by fears of a plot to kidnap the Dalai Lama and take him to Beijing, as Chinese officers had invited him to the PLA headquarters for a theatrical performance and tea. However, he was suspiciously told to come alone. On this day, 300,000 Tibetans surrounded Norbulinka Palace, preventing the Dalai Lama from accepting the invitation. A week later, Chinese artillery was aimed at the palace, so the Dalai Lama was evacuated to India, before fighting broke out in Lhasa, leading to the Chinese shelling Norbulinka, murdering thousands of men, women and children. Afterwards, the PLA disunited the Tibetan resistance, executed Dalai Lama's guards, and destroyed Lhasa's monasteries and thousands of their inhabitants. China's grip and suppression towards Tibet has continued throughout the years, and the Dalai Lama has maintained a government-in-exile while living in the Himalayas.

 

Want to find out more about the Tibetan Uprising? Click here for more information.

 

March 9 - Barbie's First Appearance

This Day in History: 9 March 2020

 

9 March 1959

 

61 years ago, today, the Barbie doll made its debut at the American Toy Fair in New York City. Standing at eleven inches, with blonde hair, Barbie was the first toy doll to be mass-produced in the US that had adult features. The woman behind this was Ruth Handler, as after seeing her daughter ignore her baby dolls to play with paper dolls of adult women, she realised there was a gap in the market of toys that allowed girls to imagine the future. The Barbie doll was modelled after a doll named Lilli, based off of a German comic strip character, which was originally marketed as a gift for adult men in tobacco shops. However, Lilli became popular among children, and Handler bought the rights to her. She changed her into 'Barbara', named after her daughter. A boyfriend for Barbie, named Ken after Handler's son, was released in 1961, and Barbie's best friend, Midge, came out in 1963.

 

Over time, Barbie generated huge sales, and lots of controversy. Many women saw Barbie as providing an alternative to traditional gender toles, as she had many different jobs, being a stewardess, doctor and even a presidential candidate. However, other viewed Barbie's supply of designer outfits, cars and houses as encouraging children to be materialistic, but it was Barbie's appearance that caused the largest outcry. Her small waist and large breasts led many to believe Barbie was creating unrealistic and harmful beauty standards for girls and fostered a negative body image. Despite this, sales of Barbie merchandise continued to rise, and reached $1 billion annually by 1993. Since her release, over one billion Barbie family dolls have been sold around the world, making Barbie a global icon.

 

Want to find out more about Barbie through the years? Click here to read more, or here for an informational video.

 

March 8 - Russia's February Revolution

This Day in History: 8 March 2020

 

8 March 1917

 

103 years ago, today, the February Revolution began in Russia, when riots and strikes occurred due to the food shortages in Petrograd. This would lead to the end of the Tsarist rule in Russia, taking the country a step closer towards communist dictatorship. By 1917, many of the Russian population had lost faith in the Tsarist leader, Nicholas II, as their government was corrupt, and the economy was backwards. However, Russia's involvement in World War One is arguably the immediate cause of the revolution. The nation was no match for Germany, and Russian casualties were greater than ever before, while the economy was obliterated by the costly war effort and calls for the overthrow of the Tsar were great.

 

Demonstrators began demanding for bread in the streets of Petrograd, and were met by police, but they refused to leave. The strike began to spread among all of Petrograd's workers, and police stations were destroyed. Troops of the Petrograd army were called out to end the uprising, and in some cases, they opened fire and killed demonstrators, but usually, the people remained strong, and the troops began to waver. Soon after, the revolution triumphed when regiments of the army began to defect to the protestors' cause. The government was forced to resign, and a provisional government was formed by the Duma with the Petrograd Soviet. On March 15, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated in favour of his brother, Michael, who refused the throne, and thus brought an end to the Tsarist autocracy. This meant that Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, could leave his exile and return home to take control of the Russian Revolution.

 

Want to find out more about Russia's February Revolution? Click here for more information, or here for a short video briefly explaining the event.

 

March 7 - Bloody Sunday

This Day in History: 7 March 2020

 

7 March 1965

 

55 years ago, today, Bloody Sunday occurred, in Alabama, consisting of 600 civil rights activists, which ended in violence when the marchers were attacked and beaten by white state troopers and police. The demonstrators were led by civil rights activist John Lewis, commemorating the recent death and shooting of Jimmie Lee Jackson, a 26-year old church deacon, by state trooper James Bonard Fowler. The plan was to march from Selma to Montgomery, the state capital, but were ordered quickly to disperse, as the police assaulted them with tear gas, bullwhips and billy clubs. Lewis was hospitalised, and many more were treated for injuries.

 

This violence was broadcasted on TV, and recounted in newspapers, sparking demonstrations in 80 US cities. Two days later, Martin Luther King Jr. led more than 2,000 marchers to the Selma bridge, and on March 15, President Lyndon B. Johnson spoke on the need of a reform in voting, which is what the activists had been fighting for. King then completed the march to Montgomery, with 25,000 demonstrators, under the protection of the army and the FBI, and this route is now a US National Historic Trial. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was signed into law five months after, and Lewis became a US congressman from Georgia in 1986.

 

Want to find out more about Bloody Sunday's significance in the Civil Rights Movement? Click here for more information.

 

March 6 - Georgy Malenkov Succeeds Stalin

This Day in History: 6 March 2020

 

6 March 1953

 

67 years ago, today, Georgy Malenkov is named premier and first secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, succeeding Joseph Stalin one day after his death. However, soon after, he was pushed aside by Nikita Khrushchev. Malenkov had been one of the few oldest Bolsheviks, who survived Stalin's purges of the 1930s. He preferred to work in the background, passively, and so was not taken seriously by many in the government. Under Stalin's surveillance, he still managed to advance up the Communist Party hierarchy, and so by the late 1940s, it was widely assumed he would succeed Stalin, which he did. When Malenkov took power, it appeared he might be a reformist, as he wanted to cut military spending and ease political repression. This is believed to have led to opposition by Khrushchev through his formation of a coalition of leaders against Malenkov, two weeks later.

 

In February 1955, Malenkov was voted out as premier, by the same coalition, and Nikolai Bulganin took over, who was a puppet of Khrushchev's. Malenkov resented this, and two years later, joined a plot to overthrow Khrushchev, however, this failed, and Malenkov was removed from government positions and expelled from the Party. He faced being sent to Kazakhstan to serve as the manager of a hydroelectric operation, instead of imprisonment, and died in 1988. Ultimately, Malenkov was a transition figure from the dictatorship of Stalin to a more moderate regime under Khrushchev, even though Khrushchev, who had wanted to get rid of Malenkov, ended up supporting many of his reforms.

 

Want to find out more about the life and legacy of Georgy Malenkov? Click here for more information.

 

 

March 5 - Iron Curtain Speech

This Day in History: 5 March 2020

 

5 March 1946

 

74 years ago, today, former British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, delivered one of the most famous speeches in the Cold War, that condemned the Soviet Union's policies in Europe. He spoke that an "iron curtain has descended across the continent", which was widely believed to be one of the first signs of the Cold War. Churchill was defeated for re-election a year prior, but was still invited to Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, where he gave the speech. American President Harry S. Truman joined Churchill on the platform and listened attentively, as Churchill began by praising the US. Soon after, it became clear that the main purpose of the speech was to gain a 'special relationship' between both countries, to organize the post-war world. He also warned against the expansionist policies of the Soviet Union, which unfortunately drew parallels with how Hitler was dealt with, prior to World War Two.

 

The speech was warmly received by many US officials, including Truman, and the phrase 'iron curtain' entered the official vocabulary of the Cold War. However, US officials were not as enthusiastic about the 'special relationship' between the countries, as they viewed England as a valuable ally, but were also aware of their wavering power. They had no intention of being used as pawns to aid the deteriorating British empire. In the Soviet Union, Russian dictator, Joseph Stalin, stated that the speech was "war mongering", and the comments were imperialist "racism". The British, Americans, and Russians were once allied against Hitler, but were now turning against one another as the Cold War began.

 

Want to find out more about the Iron Curtain speech? Click here to read more, or here to watch a video featuring the speech.