This Week in the Middle East - The Creation of the United Arab Emirates

This Week's Historical Theme: The Middle East

 

21 December 1971

 

A significant event throughout the history of the Middle East that occurred in December was the formation of the United Arab Emirates. This created a small state with the union of six small Gulf kingdoms, to which a seventh was soon added, that had an outsized role in the global economy. Since this, the sovereign nation has enjoyed the profits of its natural resources, including its reserves of oil and natural gas. Its wealth has turned the Emirates into a major hub of trade, travel, tourism, and finance. The tallest structure in the world, Dubai's Burj Khalifa, is also emblematic of the Emirates' construction boom and rise to global prominence.

 

The kingdoms on the coast of the Arabian Peninsula had been under British protection in the 1820s, which allowed for the discovery of the region's vast oil reserves. This led to the decrease of the British Empire's influence, as the kingdoms became major suppliers of oil. Therefore, in 1968, the British government declared their withdrawal, leaving the people of the region to their own devices. As they were dwarfed by their neighbours in terms of size, population, and military, the kingdoms attempted to organise themselves into one political unit. Although the negotiations proved difficult, the United Arab Emirates was formed, including the kingdoms of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai and Umm al-Quwain. Two months later, Ras al-Khaimah joined.

 

Want to find out more about the creation of the United Arab Emirates? Click here for more information, or here for a wider history of the UAE.

This Week in Climate Change - The Clean Air Act

This Week's Historical Theme: Climate Change

 

17 December 1963

 

A significant event throughout the history of climate change that occurred in December was the Clean Air Act, passed by President Lyndon B. Johnson. This was one of the first major pieces of environmental legislation in the United States, which empowered federal and state agencies to research and regulate air pollution. This marked a major expansion of government efforts to fight back against the damage being done to the climate. Before this, in 1955, the Air Pollution Control Act had allocated $15 million to the study of air pollution across the country. The research conducted revealed that further legislation would be needed.

 

The landmark act, as well as its subsequent amendments, comprised of some of the most comprehensive air-quality legislation in the world. Shortly after its creation in 1970, the Environmental Protection Agency began using its powers under the Clean Air Act to set quality standards for areas that had been affected by air pollution. It has subsequently been invoked to ban specific harmful chemicals and tackle specific environmental issues, like acid rain. Even though there is a long way to go, national emissions after the act dropped 63%, despite overall economic growth and an increase in the number of miles driven.

 

Want to find out more about the Clean Air Acts? Click here for more information, or here for more about the history of climate change.

This Week in Literature - The Birth of Emily Dickinson

This Week's Historical Theme: Literature

 

10 December 1830

 

A significant event throughout the history of literature that occurred in December was the birth of Emily Dickinson, who was born in Amherst, Massachusetts. She was a witty and popular student when she studied at Amherst Academy and at Mt. Holyoke, but she was viewed as unconventional. Although rarely leaving Amherst, she made some trips to Philadelphia and Boston. This was because she preferred her home, where her strict father, invalid mother, spinster sister and domineering brother created a colourful yet oppressive family life. In 1862, Dickinson wrote to an editor, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, for him to evaluate her work. He said her work was not yet ready to publish but became her mentor.

 

Today, only one romance of Dickinson's is known about. This was with Judge Otis Lord. Even though it looked like the two would marry, the romance ended. After 1862, she was increasingly reluctant to leave her house and often declined to see visitors. Only seven poems of hers were published in her lifetime, even though she wrote 1,775. All of these were deceptively simple and had endless variations on the same pattern. When Dickinson was 55, she died. However, in 1890, thanks to her sister, 'Poems by Emily Dickinson' was published, which would be followed by more volumes over the next 60 years. In 1955, 'The Complete Works of Emily Dickinson' was published.

 

Want to find out more about the life of Emily Dickinson? Click here for more information, or here to read some of her poems. Or watch the historical comedy-drama series 'Dickinson' on Apple TV+ for more.

This Week in Communism - The Collapse of the Soviet Union

This Week's Historical Theme: Communism

 

25 December 1991

 

A significant event throughout the history of communism that occurred in December is the collapse of the Soviet Union, after Mikhail Gorbachev announced his resignation as the president of the nation. He had lost much of his power and prestige in the Soviet Union, and the economy was very unstable. No Soviet was pleased by Gorbachev, as some opponents demanded even more political freedom whereas hard-liners opposed any movement toward reform. He survived an attempted coup in August, but only through the assistance of Boris Yeltsin, the Russian Federation president. Yeltsin subsequently became a vocal critic of the slow pace of the country's economic and political reforms.

 

Despite this announcement, representatives from Soviet republics has already declared that they would no longer be part of the Soviet Union. Instead, they announced that they would establish a Commonwealth of Independent States. As the three Baltic republics of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia had already declared their independence from the Soviet Union, only one of its 15 republics, Kazakhstan, remained. Gorbachev was ultimately disappointed in the dissolution of his nation, hence his resignation. Despite this, it was a peaceful end to a long and terrifying decade, known as the Cold War.

 

Want to find out more about the fall of the Soviet Union? Click here for a video with more information, or here for more about the history of the Cold War.

November 30 - The Winter War Begins

This Day in History: 30 November 2020

 

30 November 1939

 

81 years ago, today, the Winter War began when the Red Army crossed the Soviet-Finnish border with 465,000 men and 1,000 aircraft. Helsinki was bombed, and 61 Finnish people were killed in an air raid that boosted the Finn's resistance. The overwhelming forces of the Soviets convinced most Western nations that the invasion would end in Soviet victory. However, the Helsinki raid produced many casualties, and photographs of mothers holding dead babies and girls crippled by the bombing were hung up to motivate the Finn resistance. This resistance consisted only of small numbers of trained soldiers, but the nation's refusal to submit made headlines around the world.

 

President Roosevelt quickly extended $10 million in credit to Finland, noting that the Finns were the only people to pay back their World War I war debt to the US in full. However, by the time the Soviets had a chance to regroup, and send in massive reinforcements, the Finnish resistance was swept. By March 1940, negotiations with the Soviets began, and Finland soon lost the Karelian Isthmus, the land bridge that gave access to Leningrad, which the Soviets wanted to control. Nevertheless, Soviet losses were also heavy, and the country's international reputation suffered. The poor performance of the Red Army encouraged Adolf Hitler to believe that an attack on the Soviet Union would be successful and also confirmed negative Western opinions of the Soviet military.

 

Want to find out more about the Winter War? Click here for more information, or here for more about the significance of the Karelian Isthmus.

November 29 - The UN Votes to Partition Palestine

This Day in History: 29 November 2020

 

29 November 1947

 

73 years ago, today, the UN voted for the partition of Palestine, and the creation of an independent Jewish state, despite strong Arab opposition. This plan proposed that the Jews were to possess more than half of Palestine, even though they made up less than half of Palestine's population. The Palestinian Arabs, aided by volunteers from other countries, fought against the Zionist forces. Despite this, the Jews secured full control of their allocated area of Palestine and also some Arab territory. In May 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed by Jewish Agency Chairman David Ben-Gurion, and the next day, forces from Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded.

 

The modern conflict between Jews and Arabs in Palestine had dated back to the 1910s, when both groups laid claim to the territory, controlled by the British at the time. These Jews mainly consisted of Zionists, recent emigrants from Europe and Russia who came to the Jews' ancient homeland to establish a Jewish national state. The native Palestinian Arabs, on the other hand, sought to prevent Jewish immigration and set up a secular Palestinian state. The British also attempted to limit Jewish immigration as a means of appeasing the Arabs. However, many Jews illegally entered Palestine during World War II, as a result of the Holocaust in Europe.

 

Want to find out more about the UN partition of Palestine? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Arab-Israeli conflict.

November 28 - The Marriage of William Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway

This Day in History: 28 November 2020

 

28 November 1582

 

438 years ago, today, William Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, when he was 18 years old and she was 26. The two paid for a 40-pound bond for their marriage license in Stratford-upon-Avon. Six months later, Anne gave birth to their daughter, Susanna, and two years later, to twins. Despite this, little is known about Shakespeare's early life, apart from that his father was a tradesman, and Shakespeare's baptism took place in April 1564. Sometime after the birth of his children, Shakespeare set off for London to become an actor. By 1592, he was well established in London's theatrical world as an actor and a playwright.

 

His earliest plays, including 'The Taming of the Shrew', were written in the early 1590s. Later in the decade, he wrote tragedies like 'Romeo and Juliet' and comedies including 'The Merchant of Venice'. However, his greatest tragedies were written after 1600, like 'Othello', 'King Lear' and 'Macbeth'. Shakespeare also became a member of the popular theatre group, the Lord Chamberlain's Men. They built and operated the famous Globe Theatre in London in 1599, which Shakespeare would later become a major shareholder in. In 1610, he retired to Stratford, where he wrote his last plays, including 'The Winter's Tale'. He also had written more than 100 sonnets, which were published in 1609. His plays, on the other hand, were not published during his lifetime.

 

Want to find out more about the life of Shakespeare? Click here for more information, or here for more about his marriage.

November 27 - Pope Urban II Calls for the First Crusade

This Day in History: 27 November 2020

 

27 November 1095

 

925 years ago, today, Pope Urban II made the most influential speech of the Middle Ages, giving rise to the Crusades by calling all Christians in Europe to wage war against Muslims in order to reclaim the Holy Land. As Pope, Urban made internal reform his main focus, railing against simony and other clerical abuses that were prevalent in the Middle Ages. He showed himself to be a powerful and adept cleric. When he was elected as Pope in 1088, he applied his statecraft to weakening support for his rivals, notably Clement III.

 

Urban's war cry had between 60,000 to 100,000 people respond to it, marching on Jerusalem. However, not all who responded did so out of piety, as some European nobles were tempted by the prospect of increased land holdings and riches to be gained from the conquest. These nobles were responsible for the death of a great many innocents both on the way to the Holy Land in and there, absorbing the riches and estates of those who they deemed opponents to their cause. Due to the Christian peasants' inexperience, they were initially beaten back. This crusade was the first of seven major military campaigns fought over the next two centuries known as the Crusades.

 

Want to find out more about the first Crusade? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more about the other Crusades.

November 26 - Thanksgiving Day is Officially Established by FDR

This Day in History: 26 November 2020

 

26 November 1941

 

79 years ago, today, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a bill that officially declared the fourth Thursday in November to be Thanksgiving Day. The tradition of celebrating the holiday on Thursday dates back to the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay, when a famous Thanksgiving observance occurred in 1621. Plymouth governor William Bradford had invited local members of the Wampanoag tribe to join the Pilgrims in a festival held in gratitude for the bounty of the season. Throughout the 17^th century, this became an annual custom in New England. However, it was not until 1863, when President Abraham Lincoln declared Thanksgiving to officially fall on the last Thursday of November, that the modern holiday was celebrated nationally.

 

With a few exceptions, Lincoln's action was followed annually by every subsequent president, until 1939. In this year, Franklin D. Roosevelt departed from tradition by declaring November 23 as Thanksgiving Day, the next to last Thursday. Controversy surrounded this deviation, and some Americans even refused to honour this declaration. Over the next two years, Roosevelt repeated the unpopular proclamation. However, on this day, he admitted his mistake and signed a bill into law that officially cemented the fourth Thursday of November as the national holiday of Thanksgiving.

 

Want to find out more about the history of Thanksgiving Day? Click here for more information, or here for more about Roosevelt's declaration. 

November 25 - The Death of Yukio Mishima

This Day in History: 25 November 2020

 

25 November 1970

 

50 years ago, today, Yukio Mishima, the world-renowned Japanese writer, died by suicide after he failed to win public support for his extreme political beliefs. Mishima was born in 1925 and was obsessed with what he saw as the spiritual barrenness of modern life. He preferred pre-war Japan, due to its patriotism and traditional values. The materialistic, westernised nation that arose after 1945 was despised by him. In this spirit, he founded the 'Shield Society', which was a controversial private army made up of about 100 students that was to defend the emperor in the event of a leftist uprising.

 

On the same day he died, Mishima delivered the last instalment of 'The Sea of Fertility' to his publisher. This was his four-volume epic on Japanese life in the 20^th century that is regarded by many to be his greatest work. He then went with many of his followers to a military building in Tokyo, before seizing control of a general's office. From there, he gave a brief speech to around 1,000 servicemen, urging them to overthrow Japan's constitution. The soldiers, however, were unsympathetic, and Mishima committed 'seppuku', otherwise known as ritual suicide, by disembowelling himself with his sword.

 

Want to find out more about the death of Yukio Mishima? Click here for more information, or here for more about the history of 'seppuku'.

November 24 - Terrorist Attack on Egyptian Mosque

This Day in History: 24 November 2020

 

24 November 2017

 

3 years ago, today, a bomb destroyed a mosque in Egypt's northern Sinai region as terrorists opened fire on those finishing Friday prayer at the al-Rawdah mosque. This attack killed 305 people, including 27 children, and wounded 120, making it the deadliest terrorist strike in the country's recent years. It also served as a cruel turning point for the country. The attacks had been common since 2013, when the current president overthrew President Mohamed Morsi of the Muslim Brotherhood. However, attacks on mosques had been rare, as the terrorists had previously been attacking Coptic Christian churches and security forces, but generally avoided Muslim houses of prayer.

 

The attack occurred just days before the prophet Muhammad's birthday, when the mosque was full of worshippers. 25-30 militants pulled up in vehicles and fired on worshipped from the mosque's main door and 12 large windows. Several bombs and rocket-propelled grenades went off as worshippers tried to flee. The gunmen set fire to cars parked outside and shot at arriving ambulances to hinder escape. While no group took responsibility, evidence pointed to ISIS. Hours after the attack, Egypt's military launched air strikes on targets in mountainous areas around the city, and three days of national mourning was declared.

 

Want to find out more about the 2017 Sinai terrorist attack? Click here for more information.

 

November 23 - Perkin Warbeck is Executed

This Day in History: 23 November 2020

 

23 November 1499

 

521 years ago, today, Perkin Warbeck, who invaded England in 1497 claiming to be the lost son of King Edward IV, was hanged for allegedly trying to escape from the Tower of London. In 1491, Warbeck went to Ireland and claimed that he was Richard, Duke of York, the second son of Edward IV. In 1483, however, Richard and his elder brother were presumed murdered in the Tower of London by their uncle, King Richard III. Despite this, their fates are still not confirmed, as it is unknown what happened to them.

 

Warbeck found support from the enemies of King Henry VII, the first Tudor king of England, who had established his new dynasty in 1485, when he won the Battle of Bosworth against King Richard III. These supporters included James IV of Scotland, who offered Warbeck Lady Catherine Gordon in marriage. However, the Treaty of Ayton ended this support as James made peace with England. In 1497, Warbeck landed at Cornwall and raised an army of 6,000 men. Faced with King Henry's larger army, he fled, but was captured and imprisoned. He was treated well by Henry initially, and soon confessed to being an imposter. However, after trying to escape, he was hanged.

 

Want to find out more about Perkin Warbeck? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Battle of Bosworth.

November 22 - Angela Merkel Becomes the Chancellor of Germany

This Day in History: 22 November 2020

 

22 November 2005

 

15 years ago, today, Angela Merkel became the Chancellor of Germany, marking her as the first woman to hold the position. She also serves as the 'de facto' leader of the European Union. Educated and raised in East Germany, she earned a doctorate in quantum chemistry and worked as a research scientist. She only entered politics after the fall of the Berlin Wall. After serving as a spokesperson for the caretaker East German government, she was elected to the Bundestag in the first election after unification in 1990. When Helmut Kohl's Christian Democratic Union was voted out in 1998, Merkel became the party's Secretary-General, then its Leader.

 

Her time in power had been characterised by her desire for a strong EU. However, she generated criticism from the left after the 2008 financial crisis, as people viewed Germany as imposing severe measures upon Greece. She also made the controversial announcement in 2015 that Germany would process asylum applications for Syrian refugees and those forced out of Hungary. Merkel also held good relations with American Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama. She is currently the longest-tenured head of government in Europe and has emerged as one of the strongest forces in European politics over the last decade, being called the most powerful woman in the world.

 

Want to find out more about Angela Merkel? Click here for more information, or here for more about her rise to power.

November 21 - Thomas Edison Announces His Invention of the Phonograph

This Day in History: 21 November 2020

 

21 November 1877

 

143 years ago, today, Thomas Edison announced his invention of the phonograph, which was a way to record and play back sound. Edison stumbled on this great invention while working on a way to record telephone communication at his laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey. His work led him to experiment with a stylus on a tinfoil cylinder. This surprised him, as it played back the short song he had recorded, 'Mary Had a Little Lamb'. Public demonstrations of the phonograph made the inventor famous, and he was called the 'Wizard of Menlo Park'.

 

Edison set aside this invention in 1878 to work on the incandescent light bulb, and other inventors began to improve the phonograph. Edison resumed work on the device by using the wax-cylinder technique developed by Charles Tainter. Although initially used as a dictating machine, the phonograph proved to be a popular tool for entertainment. In 1906, Edison unveiled a series of musical and theatrical selections to the public through his National Phonograph Company. During the 1920s, the early record business suffered with the growth of radio, and in 1929, Edison's recording production ceased forever. Edison died in 1931, after acquiring 1,093 patents.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the phonograph? Click here for more information, or here for more about his other inventions.

November 20 - The Nuremberg Trials Begin

This Day in History: 20 November 2020

 

20 November 1945

 

75 years ago, today, the Nuremberg Trials began, as 24 high-ranking Nazis went on trial in Nuremberg, for atrocities committed during World War II. These trials were conducted by an international tribunal made up of representatives from the United States, the Soviet Union, France and Great Britain. It was the first trial of its kind in history, and the defendants faced charges ranging from crimes against peace, to crimes of war, to crimes against humanity. Lord Justice Geoffrey Lawrence, the British member, presided over the proceedings, which tasted 10 months and consisted of 216 court sessions.

 

In October 1946, 12 architects of the Nazi policy were sentenced to death, and 7 others were sentenced to prison terms, ranging from 10 years to life. Three others were acquitted. Of the original 24 defendants, one, Robert Ley, committed suicide while in prison, and another, Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, was deemed mentally and physically incompetent to stand trial. Among those condemned to death were Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hermann Goering, Alfred Jodl, and Wilhelm Frick. Goering, however, committed suicide by poison on the eve of his scheduled execution. Trials of lesser war criminals continued in Germany during the 1950s and resulted in the conviction of 5,025 other defendants and the execution of 806.

 

Want to find out more about the Nuremberg Trials? Click here for more information, or here for more about the most wanted Nazis today.

November 19 - President Lincoln Delivers the Gettysburg Address

This Day in History: 19 November 2020

 

19 November 1863

 

157 years ago, today, President Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address at the dedication of a military cemetery in Gettysburg, during the American Civil War. In less than 275 words, Lincoln movingly reminded the weary public why the Union had to fight, and win, the Civil War. The Battle of Gettysburg had been fought some four months prior and was the bloodiest battle of the Civil War. Over the course of three days, more than 45,000 men were killed, injured, captured or went missing. It also proved to be the turning point of the war, as it marked the beginning of the Southern army's ultimate decline.

 

An attorney named David Wills bought 17 acres of pasture to turn into a cemetery for the more than 7,500 who fell in battle. At its dedication, the crowd listened for two hours to Edward Everett, one of the most famous orators of the day, before Lincoln spoke. His address lasted only two or three minutes and reflected his redefined belief that the Civil War was not only a fight to save the Union, but also a struggle for freedom and equality. Reception towards the Gettysburg Address speech was initially mixed, divided strictly along partisan lines. Nevertheless, the speech is thought by many today to be the most eloquent articulation of the democratic vision ever written.

 

Want to find out more about the Gettysburg Address? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Battle of Gettysburg.

November 18 - The Jonestown Massacre Occurs

This Day in History: 18 November 2020

 

18 November 1978

 

42 years ago, today, Jim Jones, the founder of the Peoples Temple, led hundreds of his followers to commit mass suicide in Jonestown. Many of them willingly ingested a poison-laced drink while others were forced to do so at gunpoint. The final death toll at Jonestown that day was 909; a third of those who perished were children. He had commanded everyone to gather in the main pavilion and commit what he termed a 'revolutionary act'. The youngest members of the Peoples Temple were the first to die, as parents and nurses used syringes to poison the children. Adults then lined up to drink the poison while armed guards surrounded the pavilion.

 

People Temple was a Christian sect that preached against racism, attracting many African Americans. The church was accused by the media of financial fraud, physical abuse and mistreatment of children in the 1970s, causing Jones to move the congregation to Guyana, where he promised a socialist utopia. When Guyanese officials arrived at the Jonestown compound the next day, they found it carpeted with hundreds of bodies. Many people had perished with their arms around each other. A few residents managed to escape into the jungle as the suicides took place, while at least several dozen more Peoples Temple members, including several of Jones' sons, survived as they were in another part of Guyana at the time.

 

Want to find out more about the Jonestown massacre? Click here for more information, or here for more about how Jones spread his message of death.

November 17 - The Elizabethan Age Begins

This Day in History: 17 November 2020

 

17 November 1558

 

462 years ago, today, the Elizabethan Age begun when Queen Mary I died and was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth. The two half-sisters had a stormy relationship during Mary's five-year reign, as Mary had been brought up as a Catholic, and so enacted pro-Catholic legislation and tried to restore the pope's supremacy in the country. A Protestant rebellion commenced, resulting in Mary imprisoning Elizabeth in the Tower of London on suspicion of complicity. After Mary's death, Elizabeth likewise suffered several Catholic plots, but her ascension was greeted with approval by most of England's lords, as they were largely Protestant and hoped for greater religious tolerance.

 

In foreign affairs, Elizabeth practised a policy of strengthening England's Protestant allies and dividing her foes. She was opposed by the pope, who refused to recognise her legitimacy, and by Spain, a powerful Catholic nation. In 1588, Spain invaded England, in which the Spanish Armada, the greatest naval force at the time, was destroyed by storms and a determined English navy. With increasing English domination at sea, Elizabeth encouraged voyages of discovery, such as Sir Francis Drake's circumnavigation of the world and Sir Walter Raleigh's expeditions to the North American coast. Elizabeth also became known as the 'Virgin Queen' for her reluctance to marry. By her death, England had become a major world power, and Elizabeth passed into history as one of England's greatest monarchs.

 

Want to find out more about the reign of Elizabeth I? Click here for more information, or here for more about Elizabeth's spy network.

November 16 - Joseph Goebbels Blames the Jews for World War II

This Day in History: 16 November 2020

 

16 November 1941

 

79 years ago, today, Joseph Goebbels published in the German magazine, 'Das Reich', that 'Jews wanted the war, and now they have it'. This referred to the Nazi propaganda scheme to shift the blame for the world war onto European Jews, thereby giving the Nazis a rationalisation for the so-called 'Final Solution'. Just two days prior, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had written a letter to the 'Jewish Chronicle' having read more than a dozen decoded messages from German police which revealed the atrocities to which European Jews were being subjected. He stated that the Jew 'has not allowed [the Nazis] to break his spirit: he has never lost the will to resist.'

 

Churchill was correct, as active Jewish resistance was increasing, especially in the Soviet union, where Jews were joining partisans in fighting the German incursions into Russian territory. However, it was proving to be too late, as Goebbels and the rest of Hitler's henchmen carried out the 'elimination of the Jews' by using propaganda and anti-Bolshevik rhetoric to infuse SS soldiers with enthusiasm for Hitler's work. As the war drew to a close in 1945, Hitler committed suicide. In accordance with Hitler's will, Goebbels succeeded him as Chancellor of Germany, but only served one day in this post. The following day, Goebbels and his wife committed suicide, after poisoning their six children with cyanide.

 

Want to find out more about Joseph Goebbels? Click here for more information, or here for more about the other most wanted Nazi war criminals.

November 15 - The Shah of Iran Visits President Carter

This Day in History: 15 November 2020

 

15 November 1977

 

43 years ago, today, President Carter hosted the shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and his wife, Shahbanou Farrah, to Washington. Over the next two days, Carter and Pahlavi discussed improving relations between the two countries. The official discussions centred on peace prospects for the Middle East as well as ways to combat the energy crisis that had hit the West in the early 1970s. At the time, Carter hoped to enlist Iran's help in reconvening peace talks between Israel and Egypt. He also wanted Iran's help in supporting nuclear non-proliferation talks with the Soviet Union.

 

The visit ended on a positive note, and the next month, Carter and his wife travelled to Tehran. Two years later, the two leaders' political fates would be further entwined when Islamic fundamentalists overthrew the shah and took Americans hostage in Tehran. In October 1979, the exiled shah came to the United States for cancer treatment. Carter's hospitality toward the shah enraged a group of radical Iranian students, who stormed the US embassy in Tehran in November, taking 66 Americans hostage. This crisis lasted 444 days and Carter's inability to secure their release led to his replacement by Ronald Reagan in 1980.

 

Want to find out more about the shah's disposition? Click here for more information, or here for more about the hostage crisis.

November 14 - The United States Announces Support for Yugoslavia

This Day in History: 14 November 2020

 

14 November 1951

 

69 years ago, today, the United States announced its plan to give military and economic aid to communist Yugoslavia. The action was part of the US policy to drive a further wedge between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. Even though the United States had supported Josip Broz Tito during World War II, as Cold War hostilities set in, US policy toward Yugoslavia hardened. Tito was viewed simply as another tool of Soviet expansion into eastern and southern Europe. However, in 1948, Tito broke with Stalin, but still continued to proclaim his allegiance to communist ideology.

 

In order to win Tito's favour, the United States supported Yugoslavia's efforts in 1949 to gain a seat at the United Nations. In 1951, President Truman asked Congress to provide economic and military assistance to Yugoslavia, which was granted. Nevertheless, Tito continued to support the Soviet Union, as in 1956, he supported the Soviet invasion of Hungary. Even though the United States admired Tito's independence, sometimes he could be too independent. The American officials were concerned in the 1950s and 1960s when Tito encouraged and supported the nonalignment movement among Third World nations, as the Americans were intent on forcing those nations to choose sides in the Cold War.

 

Want to find out more about Yugoslavia in the Cold War? Click here for more information, or here for more about Tito.

November 13 - The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is Dedicated

This Day in History: 13 November 2020

 

13 November 1982

 

38 years ago, today, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C., after a march to its site by thousands of veterans who served in the conflict. The long-awaited memorial was a simple V-shaped black granite wall, that was inscribed with the names of the 57,939 Americans who died in the conflict. Their names were arranged in order of death, not their rank, which was common in other memorials. It soon became one of the most visited memorials in the nation's capital. It drew together both those who fought and those who marched against the war, serving to promote national healing a decade after the conflict ended.

 

The designer of the memorial was Maya Lin, a Yale University architecture student who entered a nationwide competition to create a design for the monument. Lin was born in Ohio in 1959 and was the daughter to Chinese immigrants. Many veterans' groups were opposed to the winning design, as it lacked a standard memorial's heroic statutes and stirring words. However, a shift in public opinion occurred in the months after the memorial's dedication. Families of the dead and veterans visited the wall, seeking the names of their loved ones. Once the name was found, a private offering was usually left, from notes and flowers to dog tags and cans of beer.

 

Want to find out more about the Vietnam Veterans Memorial? Click here for more information, or here for more about Maya Lin.

November 12 - Akihito Enthroned as Japanese Emperor

This Day in History: 12 November 2020

 

12 November 1990

 

30 years ago, today, Crown Prince Akihito was enthroned as the emperor of Japan, making him the 125^th Japanese monarch along an imperial line dating back to 660 B.C. He was the only son of the late Emperor Hirohito and became the first Japanese monarch to reign solely as an official figurehead. His father had begun his reign in 1926 as absolute, but his powers were very limited in practise. After the Japanese defeat in World War II, Hirohito was stripped of his power by the United States and forced to renounce his divinity. With this signing, amending the Japanese constitution, the emperor became the official figurehead of Japan.

 

In 1959, Akihito had caused controversy when he broke a 1,500-year-old tradition by marrying a commoner. She was Shoda Michiko, the daughter of a wealthy businessman. The imperial couple subsequently had three children: Crown Prince Naruhito, Prince Akishino, and Princess Nori. When Akihito became emperor, he commenced a new Japanese era, known as 'Heisei', meaning 'achieving peace'. However, in April 2019, he stepped down from the throne, making him the first Japanese monarch to abdicate in over 200 years. He was succeeded by Naruhito.

 

Want to find out more about Akihito? Click here for more information, or here for a video of his abdication ceremony.

November 11 - The Armistice Ends World War I

This Day in History: 11 November 2020

 

11 November 1918

 

102 years ago, today, World War I ended when Germany signed an armistice agreement with the Allies in France. The war had left nine million soldiers dead and 21 million wounded, with Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Great Britain each losing nearly a million or more lives. In addition to this, at least five million civilians died from disease, starvation or exposure. The war became known as the 'war to end all wars' because of the great slaughter and destruction it caused. However, the peace treaty that officially ended the conflict, the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, forced punitive terms on Germany that destabilised Europe and laid the groundwork for World War II.

 

The war had been sparked in 1914 when Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was shot to death. He had been inspecting his uncle's imperial armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina, despite the threat of Serbian nationalists. Had Gavrilo Princip, the murderer, not been buying a sandwich on the same street as where the Archduke's car was being turned around, it could be said that the war would not have happened. The Serbian government was blamed for the attack.

 

Want to find out more about the armistice that ended the First World War? Click here for more information, or here for more about the death of Franz Ferdinand.

November 10 - Copies of 'Slaughterhouse-Five' are Burned

This Day in History: 10 November 2020

 

10 November 1973

 

47 years ago, today, newspaper reports were published detailing the burning of 36 copies of 'Slaughterhouse-Five' by Kurt Vonnegut in North Dakota. This book was a combination of real events and was also science fiction. The hero, Billy Pilgrim, was a World War II soldier who had witnessed the firebombing of Dresden, which Vonnegut himself had seen. Pilgrim becomes 'unstuck in time' and lives a double existence. One of his lives is based on an alien planet where a resigned acceptance of doom expresses itself. In his other life on Earth, Pilgrim preaches the same philosophy. Many found the book's pessimistic outlook and bleak humour unsuitable for school children.

 

In 1992, Vonnegut was born in Indiana. During World War II, he was captured by Germans and held in Dresden, where he was forced to dig out dead and charred bodies in the aftermath of the city's bombing. After the war, he studied anthropology at the University of Chicago and later wrote journalism and public relations material. His other novels include 'Cat's Cradle', 'Breakfast of Champions', 'Galapagos' and others, but did not generate as much controversy as 'Slaughterhouse-Five'. His experimental writing style, combining the real, the absurd and the satiric, attracted attention and made his books popular. He died in 2007.

 

Want to find out more about the controversy surrounding 'Slaughterhouse-Five'? Click here for more information, or here for more about Kurt Vonnegut.

November 9 - Kristallnacht

This Day in History: 9 November 2020

 

9 November 1938

 

82 years ago, today, the Nazis launched Kristallnacht, a campaign of terror against Jewish people and their homes and businesses in Germany and Austria. It was dubbed as 'Kristallnacht', meaning 'Night of Broken Glass' after the many smashed windows of Jewish-owned establishments. This event left around 100 Jews dead, 7,500 Jewish businesses damaged, and hundreds of synagogues, homes, schools and graveyards vandalised. It is estimated that 30,000 Jewish men were arrested, many of whom were subsequently sent to concentration camps and were released when they promised to leave Germany. The pogrom represented a dramatic escalation of the anti-Semitic campaign by Adolf Hitler.

 

In the aftermath of Kristallnacht, the Nazis blamed the Jews and fined them 1 billion marks for Ernst vom Rath's death, who was a German diplomat in Paris, killed by a Polish Jew. This was used as an excuse to carry out the attacks. In repayment, the government seized Jewish property and kept insurance money owed to Jewish people. Further discriminatory policies that excluded Jews from public life were enacted to create the master Aryan race. This led to the fleeing of 100,000 Jews from Germany, and outrage from other nations. Some countries broke off diplomatic relations with Germany, but the Nazis suffered no serious consequences, leading them to believe that they could get away with mass murder in the Holocaust.

 

Want to find out more about Kristallnacht? Click here for more information, or here for more about the Holocaust.

November 8 - X-Rays Are Observed for the First Time

This Day in History: 8 November 2020

 

8 November 1895

 

125 years ago, today, Germany scientist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen became the first person to observe X-rays, a significant scientific advancement that benefitted a variety of fields, especially medicine, by making the invisible visible. His discovery occurred accidentally in his lab in Wurzburg, Germany, where he was testing if cathode rays could pass through glass when he noticed a glow coming from a nearby chemically coated screen. He dubbed the rays that caused this glow 'X-rays' because of their unknown nature. This was labelled as a medical miracle and X-rays soon became an important diagnostic tool in medicine.

 

Doctors could now see inside the human body for the first time without surgery, and in 1897, X-rays were used on a military battlefield for the first time, during the Balkan War, to find bullets and broken bones inside patients. Scientists realised the benefits of X-rays but were slow to comprehend their harmful effects. It was though initially they were as harmless as light, but within several years, burns and skin damage was reported after exposure to X-rays. Thomas Edison's assistant, Clarence Dally, died of skin cancer after working extensively with X-rays, causing scientists to begin taking the risks of radiation more seriously.

 

Want to find out more about the history of X-rays? Click here for more information, or here for more about Wilhelm Röntgen.

November 7 - FDR is Elected to Serve His Fourth Term in Office

This Day in History: 7 November 2020

 

7 November 1944

 

76 years ago, today, President Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected to an unprecedented fourth term in office and remains the only president to have served more than two terms. He had rose above personal and political challenges to ultimately emerge as one of the most influential presidents, presiding over two of the biggest crises in US history after contracting polio in 1921: the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II. As president, he implemented the legislation necessary to help boost America out of the Great Depression. Although he initially delayed US involvement in the war, the bombing of Pearl Harbour in 1941 thrust America into the conflict.

 

When Roosevelt was elected to his fourth term, the war was looking to be in favour of the Allied victory, but the president's health was in serious decline. His arteriosclerosis had been worsened by the stress of managing the war, and in April 1945, seven months before the war's end, Roosevelt died of a stroke. Harry Truman, Roosevelt's vice president, came into office, while Congress proposed the 22^nd Amendment. This would mean that presidents would be limited to two consecutive terms. Prior to this, they had either followed George Washington's example in serving a maximum of two years or were unsuccessful in winning a third. The Amendment was passed in 1951.

 

Want to find out more about the life of Franklin Roosevelt? Click here for more information, or here for more firsts in US presidential history.

November 6 - UN Condemns Apartheid in South Africa

This Day in History: 6 November 2020

 

6 November 1962

 

58 years ago, today, the UN condemned apartheid in South Africa, calling on all its members to end economic and military relations with the nation. In 1960, a massacre of unarmed demonstrators at Sharpeville near Johannesburg occurred where 69 Black people were killed and over 180 were injured. The international movement to end apartheid gained wide support, but few Western powers or South Africa's other main trading partners favoured a full economic or military embargo against the country. Nevertheless, opposition to apartheid within the UN grew, and the UN resolution in 1973 labelled apartheid as a "crime against humanity." The country was suspended from the General Assembly in 1974.

 

This government-sanctioned racial segregation and political discrimination against South Africa's non-white majority was enforced from 1948 to 1993. The black South Africans were forced to live in segregated areas and could not enter white-only neighbourhoods unless they had a special pass. Although white South Africans represented only a small fraction of the population, they held the vast majority of the country's land and wealth. In 1990, after decades of strikes, sanctions and demonstrations, many apartheid laws were repealed. The next year, the government repealed all remaining laws and began to write a new constitution. In 1993, the first free elections were held, electing political activist Nelson Mandela as South Africa's new president.

 

Want to find out more about the history of apartheid in South Africa? Click here for more information, or here for more about Nelson Mandela.

November 5 - The Gunpowder Plot is Foiled

This Day in History: 5 November 2020

 

5 November 1605

 

415 years ago, today, King James I learned that the Gunpowder Plot, a plan to explode the Parliament building, had been foiled, before he was scheduled to sit with the rest of the British government in a general parliament session. Sir Thomas Knyvet, a justice of the peace, found Guy Fawkes lurking in a cellar under the Parliament building and ordered for the premises to be searched. Around 20 barrels of gunpowder were found, and Fawkes was taken into custody. During a torture session on the rack, Fawkes revealed that he was a participant in an English Catholic conspiracy to destroy the Protestant government and replace it with Catholic leadership.

 

During the next few weeks, English authorities killed or captured all the plotters and put the survivors on trial. Guy Fawkes was sentenced, along with the other surviving chief conspirators, to be hanged, drawn, and quartered in London. Moments before the start of his execution, in January 1606, he jumped from a ladder climbing to the hanging platform, breaking his neck and dying instantly. November 5 was later established as a day of public thanksgiving and is celebrated today as Guy Fawkes Day. As dusk falls, bonfires are lit, fireworks are set off, and the burning of effigies of Guy Fawkes take place.

 

Want to find out more about the history of Guy Fawkes Day? Click here for more information, or here for a video with more information.

November 4 - The Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin

This Day in History: 4 November 2020

 

4 November 1995

 

25 years ago, today, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was shot fatally after attending a peace rally in Tel Aviv's Kings Square in Israel. Later, Rabin died in surgery at Ichilov Hospital in Tel Aviv. He had been walking to his car when he was shot in the arm and the back by Yigal Amir, a 27-year-old Jewish law student who had connections to the far-right Jewish group, Eyal. Israeli police arrested Amir at the scene of the shooting, and he later confessed to the assassination. He explained at his arraignment that he killed Rabin because the Prime Minister wanted to "give out country to the Arabs."

 

Rabin had been a leader of the Arab-Israeli War of 1948 and served as chief-of-staff of Israel's armed forces during the Six-Day War of 1967. After serving as Israel's ambassador to the United States, Rabin entered into the Labour Party and became Prime Minister in 1974. In this role, he conducted the negotiations that resulted in a 1974 cease-fire with Syria and the 1975 military disengagement agreement between Israel and Egypt. In October 1994, Rabin and Yasir Arafat shared the Nobel Peace Prize, due to their formal peace agreement with the Palestinians.

 

Want to find out more about the assassination of Rabin? Click here for more information, or here for more about his life.

November 3 - The USSR Sends the First Animal into Space

This Day in History: 3 November 2020

 

3 November 1957

 

63 years ago, today, the Soviet Union launched the first animal into space, a dog named Laika, aboard the 'Sputnik 2' spacecraft. Laika was part Siberian husky, who had lived as a stray on the Moscow streets before being enlisted into the Soviet space program. She survived for several days as a passenger in the Soviet Union's second artificial Earth satellite, kept alive by a sophisticated life-support system. Electrodes were attached to her body, and enabled scientists on the ground to gain important information about the biological effects of space travel. Sadly, Laika died after the batteries of her life-support system ran down.

 

In the next few years, at least a dozen more Russian dogs were launched into space in preparation for the first manned Soviet space mission, and at least five of these dogs died in transit. Other non-human animals that have been launched into space include monkeys, apes, cats, tortoises, mice, frogs and insects. Seven national space programs have flown animals into space: the Soviet Union, the United States, France, Argentina, China, Japan, and Iran. In April 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to ever travel into space, aboard the spacecraft 'Vostok 1'. He orbited Earth before he landed safely back in the USSR.

 

Want to find out more about the history of animals in space? Click here for more information, or here for more about Laika.

November 2 - The Balfour Declaration is Written

This Day in History: 2 November 2020

 

2 November 1917

 

103 years ago, today, the Balfour Declaration was written. This was a letter from Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Britain's most illustrious Jewish citizen, Baron Lionel Walter Rothschild, expressing the British government's support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The letter stated that "His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people." Britain had supported the Zionist movement due to the country's concerns regarding the First World War. Prime Minister Lloyd George did hold a genuine belief in Zionism's righteousness, but Britain's leaders also hoped that a supporting statement would help gain Jewish support for the Allied war effort.

 

The influence of the Balfour Declaration on the course of post-war events was immediate. According to the 'mandate' system created by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Britain was entrusted with the administration of Palestine, with the understanding that it would support both the Jewish and Arab inhabitants. However, it did not succeed in maintaining the letter and spirit of the mandate. Britain announced its termination of its mandate over Palestine in 1947, after the UN General Assembly adopted the resolution to partition Palestine.

 

Want to find out more about the Balfour Declaration? Click here for more information, or here for more about the British mandate of Palestine.

November 1 - The European Union is Established

This Day in History: 1 November 2020

 

1 November 1993

 

27 years ago, today, the European Union was established, when the Maastricht Treaty came into effect. This was drafted in 1991 by delegates from the European Community meeting at Maastricht in the Netherlands, whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand, and was officially signed in 1992. The agreement called for a strengthened European parliament, the creation of a central European bank and common foreign and security policies. As well as this, it laid the groundwork for the establishment of a single European currency, known as the 'euro', and established European citizenship.

 

By 1993, 12 nations had ratified the Maastricht Treaty and joined the European Union: Great Britain, France, Germany, the Irish Republic, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Denmark, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. Two years later, in 1995, Austria, Finland and Sweden became members of the EU. After suffering through centuries of bloody and destructive conflict, the nations of Western Europe were finally united in the spirit of economic cooperation. However, in 2016, in what became popularly known as 'Brexit', the United Kingdom voted to leave the EU. They officially left in January 2020, and currently, the nation is in a transitional phase until December 2020.

 

Want to find out more about the history of the EU? Click here for more information, or here for more about the history of Brexit.

Black History Month - Paul Yaw Boateng

Black History Month: 30 October 2020

 

Paul Yaw Boateng is a Labour Party politician, who was the MP for Brent South from 1987 to 2005, becoming the UK's first black Cabinet Minister in May 2002, when he was appointed as Chief Secretary to the Treasury. Boateng was elected to the Greater London Council for Walthamstow in 1981, which was then under the leadership of Ken Livingstone. Boateng was only the second person of Afro-Caribbean descent to be elected to the GLC. As chair of the GLC's police committee and vice-chair of its ethnic minorities committee, he advocated greater accountability in the Metropolitan Police and spoke out against racism in relation to their dealings with the black and Asian communities. In 1992, he became shadow minister for the Lord Chancellor's Department, a post he held until the 1997 general election, where he was a strong advocate for increasing pro bono legal services among UK law firms.

 

Boateng became the UK's first black government minister as Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department of Health, where he was responsible for social services and mental health. In that position, he published guidelines to end the denial of adoptions purely on the basis of race. Boateng is credited with building a close relationship to South Africa's ANC government, and it was reported that he privately worked to bring together bitter rivals in the crisis in Zimbabwe, although he publicly condemned the Zimbabwean government's illegal occupation of land from white farmers and the resulting turmoil, which Boateng labelled a "human rights crisis." On 28 May 2010, it was announced in the 2010 Dissolution Honours that Boateng would become a member of the House of Lords.

 

Want to find out more about Paul Boateng? Click here for more information.

Black History Month - Joe Clough

Black History Month: 29 October 2020

 

Born in 1887, Joe Clough became the first Black London bus driver in history. He was born in Kingston, Jamaica, and having been orphaned at an early age, became employed by a Scottish doctor to look after his ponies. When he was just 18, in 1905, this doctor offered to take him to England, an opportunity Joe quickly accepted. They arrived in 1906. As the doctor's servant, Joe learnt not only how to drive the horse drawn coach, but also the motor car, which was a very recent invention.

 

It was not until 1910 that he applied to work at the London General Omnibus Company. Initially employed for a while as a spare driver, once he had passed his test, he began driving number 11 B-type buses around London. He made huge contributions during World War One, as he drove a field ambulance for four years on the Western Front at Ypres. Once the war was over, he lived in Bedford with his wife and two daughters and was able to buy his own taxi in 1949. Sadly, he died in 1976 at the age of 91.

 

Want to find out more about Joe Clough? Click here for more information.

Black History Month - Sara Forbes Bonetta

Black History Month: 31 October 2020

 

Sara Forbes Bonetta was the goddaughter to Queen Victoria and was an Egbado princess of the Yoruba people in West Africa. During a war with the nearby Kingdom of Dahomey, she was orphaned, and became the slave of King Ghezo of Dahomey. In a turn of events, two years later, she was liberated by Captain Frederick E. Forbes of the British Royal Navy on a diplomatic mission. From her birth name of Omoba Aina, she was renamed after Forbes and his ship HMS Bonetta. In 1850, she met Queen Victoria, who was impressed with the princess' intelligence. She had Sara, whom she called Sally, raised as her goddaughter in the British middle class.

 

In 1862, she was given permission by the Queen to marry Captain James Pinson Labulo Davies. He was a Yoruba businessman of considerable wealth, and after their wedding, the two moved back to Africa, where they had three children: Victoria, Arthur, and Stella. Sara kept such a close relationship with Queen Victoria that she and Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther were the only Lagos residents the Royal Navy had orders to evacuate in the event of an uprising. Many of Sara's descendants now live in either England or Sierra Leone, where she was educated. She died of tuberculosis in 1880. An obelisk-shaped monument was raised by her husband in her memory in Western Lagos.

 

Want to find out more about Sara Forbes Bonetta? Click here for more information, or watch the 2017 ITV series 'Victoria', where Sara is portrayed by Zaris-Angel Hator.

October 31 - Halloween

This Day in History: 31 October 2020

 

31 October 1745

 

275 years ago, today, the term 'Halloween' was first used. However, the celebration dates much further back, originating with the ancient Celtic festival of Samhain. During this, people would light bonfires and wear costumes in order to ward of ghosts. The day also marked the end of summer and the beginning of the dark, cold winter, a time associated with human death. The Celts believed that on this night, the boundary between the worlds of the living and the dead became blurred. When the celebration was over, their hearth fires were re-lit to help protect them during the winter.

 

After the Roman Empire had conquered the Celts, Halloween traditions changed. In 1000 A.D., the church made November 2 All Souls' Day, also known as All-hallows, a day to honour the dead, most likely to replace the Celtic festival with a related, church-sanctioned holiday. It was still similar to Samhain, however. The day was eventually moved to November 1 sometime in the 8^th century. The night before it began to be called All-Hallows Eve, and eventually transformed into Halloween. Although British Halloween traditions include games such as bobbing for apples and telling ghost stories, it was from the United States that modern innovations like the use of pumpkins and 'treat-or-treating' originated.

 

Want to find out more about the history of Halloween? Click here for more information, or here for Halloween costumes inspired by history.