Lunar New Year

Tuesday 22nd January 2022 will be this year's start to the Lunar New Year (also known as Chinese New Year or the Spring Festival). Many will be celebrating on the eve of the New Year by eating large feasts, giving and receiving hongbao (red pockets) filled with money and watching lion dances on the streets; The celebrations and festivities are influenced by Chinese New Year, but Lunar New Year is celebrated in other East Asian countries - such as - Singapore, the Philippines and Tibet (countries with a large population of Chinese people). This year, it is the year of the tiger, which represents bravery and competitiveness.

 

The history of Lunar New Year can be traced back to the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046BC) in China, where there would be Winter sacrifices at the end and beginning of the year to the Gods and Ancestors, which would bring hopes of good crop harvest and prosperity in the new year. From 1046-256 BC (the Zhou Dynasty), the sacrificial ceremony became a social practice, and by the Han Dynasty in 202 BC-220 AD, there was a fixed date for Chinese New Year. However, it was only in the Wei-Qing Dynasty (220-1911) and onwards, did the celebrations become about the entertainment and social element, rather than about paganism.

There are many mysterious legends surrounding the beginning of Chinese New Year, and one of the most popular ones is the legend of "Nian". "Nian" was a beast that came every year to devour and destroy all the crops and properties in its way, and the name of the beast sounds like the word for year in Mandarin and Cantonese ('年'); to prevent the beast from demolishing everything the people would leave food outside their homes, so it would eat that food instead of the crops. Although this subdued the beast a little, it never satiated it fully and so it would continue devouring most of the crops, until a man discovered that "Nian" was scared of loud noises and the colour red. Therefore, people began decorating everything red every year and setting crackling fireworks off, to ward the beast away. Thus, the traditions of decorating homes with red banners, leaving lettuce on your front door, re-enactments of this legend and setting firecrackers off.

Another legend is of course the origins of the Chinese Zodiac signs that each represents a new Lunar Year: 'The Heavenly Gate Race' begins with The Jade Emperor wanting twelve animals to be his guards, and so he sent an immortal down to earth to announce this. In order for an animal to become a guard, they would have to be one of the first twelve to arrive at the Heavenly Gates. Once the news got around, the next day the Rat got up early and began to make its way, but when it encountered a river it jumped into the ear of another animal in order to get across; the other animal was the Ox, who did not mind that the Rat was using him to get across the river, despite it being a race. Yet, when the river bank was near enough for the Rat to jump off - it did - and was then able to get to the Heavenly Gates first, making the Ox come second. Meanwhile, the nimble Rabbit and the quick Tiger were close behind (the Tiger came third and the Rabbit, fourth). Coming in at fifth was the Dragon, but due to his handsomeness the Jade Emperor allowed sixth place to go to his son, sadly the Dragon left his son at home. Despite this minor discrepancy, the Snake posed himself as the Dragon's adoptive son, and thus made him sixth place. Next, the Emperor made the Horse and the Goat seventh and eighth place, because they both were so kind to one another, and the Monkey came ninth, even though it had fallen behind slightly. Finally, the last three positions went to the Rooster, Dog and Pig. Each animal becomes the symbol of each Lunar New Year. The tiger, in Chinese culture, symbolises being the 'King of Beasts', due to the way its stripes run along its body, creating the symbol '王' ("wang"), meaning 'King' in Chinese. The tiger can also be tracked back centuries in Chinese history, depicting it being worshipped and loved by the Chinese people. Each of the twelve animals are symbolic in different ways:

1. Rat

2. Ox

3. Tiger

4. Rabbit

5. Dragon

6. Snake

7. Horse

8. Goat

9. Monkey

10. Rooster

11. Dog

12. Pig

We wish everyone celebrating, or not, a Happy Lunar New Year, may you all be in good health and prosper!

 

Mary Queen of Scots Execution

Mary Queen of Scots' Execution

On February 01st 1587, Queen Elizabeth I signed the warrant for the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.

Mary Queen of Scots, or otherwise known as Mary Stuart, was the only legitimate child of King James V of Scotland, but sadly her father passed away when she was six days old. During her reign herself and Queen Elizabeth I of England were always compared to each other, since Mary Stuart was the first female Queen of Scotland, meanwhile Elizabeth was the second Queen for England, but also due to their opposite demeanours: Queen Elizabeth I was seen as tactical, cynical and strong willed, whereas Queen Mary of Scots was seen as feminine, romantic and reckless. These two portrayals of the women, could be due to their upbringing, because Queen Mary of Scots had a pampered childhood, where she was at the centre of the most glamorous and sought-after court (the French Court), all the while, Elizabeth I was watching her father beheading her mother (Anne Boleyn) and future step-mothers. Despite Mary's lavish childhood, she was in France to keep her safe from the English trying to invade Scotland, and was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France (later he would die, and she would marry her half-cousin, Henry Stuart).

By no fault of her own, she was cousin to Elizabeth I, and so she did have a claim to the English throne. At this time, England was a protestant country, because of Henry VIII creating the Church of England, due to the Act of Supremacy in 1534. Many people wanted England to be Catholic again, and so they wanted Mary Queen of Scots to be Queen (the Act gave the power as the Head of Church to the monarch). Elizabeth I, seeing this as a threat, she locked Mary up, and later found her guilty for plotting an assassination against the Queen. Hence, on the 01st February 1587, Queen Elizabeth I, signed the warrant for the execution of Mary Queen of Scots, and on the 08th February 1587 she was executed at Fotheringhay Castle.

 

This Week in History: First meeting of the United Nations

10 January 2022 marks a grand seventy-six years since the UN (then comprising of just fifty-one member states) convened for the very first General Assembly at Westminster Central Hall, in the heart of London. But what exactly had led to this historic moment? In June 1941, twenty-two months of war had already elapsed, with the great British capital becoming all too familiar to the constant wailing of air-raid sirens and upsurge of civilian casualties. A devastating 40,000 civilians had died in the seven-month period between September 1940 and May 1941- with nearly half of these being within the capital. Despite this tragedy, in both London and among other allied governments and their people, hope remained for victory and more importantly a pathway to a brighter post-war future. It was this common strive for recovery from which the roots of the UN soon emerged and so on 12 June 1941, representatives of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa as well as several exiled governments within Europe met at St. James’ Palace and signed a declaration to voice support for a new and improved post-war world.

An extract from the declaration gives us a key insight into the aims that any future international collaborative body should adopt:

‘That the only true basis of enduring peace is the willing co-operation of free peoples in a world in which, relieved of the menace of aggression, all may enjoy economic and social security; and that it is their intention to work together, and with other free peoples, both in war and peace to this end.’

It is evident that this new body would be unlike any other, certainly in no way similar to the prior League of Nations (agreed upon within the Treaty of Versailles) which had been wholly unsuccessful in the long-term in preservation of ‘peace’ and prevention of ‘war’.

In August of that year, further developments were made towards this body, namely the signing of the Atlantic Charter between Franklin D. Roosevelt (US President 1933-45) and Winston Churchill (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1940-45). The document directly referred to the need for ‘certain common principles in the national policies of their respective countries on which they [would] base their hopes for a better future of the world.’

The purposes and principles outlined here in the Atlantic Charter were further agreed upon by twenty-six states at war within the 1 January 1942, Declaration of the United Nations. This was the first direct naming of the body as the UN, coined by US president Roosevelt.

Notable members included the United States, United Kingdom, China and the USSR.  The number of states adhering to the declaration would later rise.

<![if !vml]><![endif]>In the years to follow, as WWII drew to a close, much deliberation occurred on par with the influence each global power held. This was seen out in the Tehran conference in 1943, where the ‘Big Three’ (Leaders of the US, UK and USSR) delved into how the UN would play out in the real world. They expressed clear determination to pursue the Atlantic Charter as well as recognising ‘the supreme responsibility resting upon [them] and all the United Nations to make a peace which [would] command the goodwill of the overwhelming mass of the peoples of the world and banish the scourge and terror of war for many generations’.

They further announced their intention to ‘seek the cooperation and active participation of all nations, large and small, whose peoples in heart and mind [were] dedicated, as [were their] own peoples, to the elimination of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance’ within a ‘world family of Democratic Nations’.

Today, the UN still highlights disarmament, peace and security as well as international law and justice as global challenges, suggesting the assembly is still very much involved within the parameters of which it was founded- in a post-war Britain.

However, the 21^st century has brought new items of discussion to the table- for example, dealing with the major humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan which has ironically escalated further since the de-escalation of US forces in August 2021.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Filippo Grandi asked the European Union to take in more than 40,000 Afghan refugees over the next five years, but the plea failed to receive the backing of EU countries. This touches on how the nature of decision-making in the UN has changed from the voting systems present when it comprised only of 51 member states, in contrast to the current 193 states- requiring resolutions to be reached by consensus for the large majority of items.

Though the UN has retained its general aim of keeping peace, the 21^st century has brought an array of new challenges for the body to discuss and resolve- whereby possible.

TS

Bibliography [All accessed 10/01/2022]

https://www.un.org/en/about-us/history-of-the-un

https://www.un.org/en/about-us/history-of-the-un/preparatory-years

https://www.un.org/en/about-us/history-of-the-un/predecessor

https://www.un.org/en/global-issues

https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/09/1099112

https://www.euronews.com/2021/10/07/un-chief-asked-eu-states-to-take-in-more-than-40-000-afghan-refugees

https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/atlantic-charter?tmpl=component&print=1

https://www.un.org/en/model-united-nations/how-decisions-are-made-un

 

This Week in Russia - Romanov Family Executed

This Week’s Historical Theme: Russia 

16 July 1918 

A significant event throughout the history of Russia that occurred in July is the execution of the Romanov family. Tsar Nicholas II, crowned in 1896 after his father's death, was an incompetent and untrained ruler whose disastrous leadership led to the Russian Revolution. The failure of the Russo-Japanese war (1904-5) forced Russia to abandon its expansionist policy and led to a revolution in 1905. This revolution halted when Tsar Nicholas II promised constitutional reforms and a representative assembly (the Duma). However, he then contracted these concessions and dissolved the Duma when it opposed him, leading to growing support for revolutionary groups, such as the Bolsheviks, who were seen to properly represent the people. Discontent grew when Tsar Nicholas II led Russia into World War I in 1914, as food became scarce, and they faced devastating defeats.

In 1917, revolution broke out yet again. This time, Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate his throne and the Bolsheviks, led by Vladamir Lenin, seized power, and set about establishing a communist state. In 1918, civil war broke out an anti-Bolshevik forces advanced on Yekaterinburg, where Nicholas and his family were being kept. Fearing that the anti-Bolshevik army would free the Tsar and re-establish the autocracy, the Bolsheviks decided to kill him and his entire family. Late at night on 16 July 1918, they were gunned down, bringing an end to the 300-year imperial dynasty. The Crown Prince Alexei, and one Romanov daughter were not accounted for, fuelling rumours that Anastasia, the youngest daughter, has survived the execution.

Want to find out more about why the Romanovs were executed? Click here for more information, or here for more about Anastasia.

 

 

This Week in World War II - Enigma Key Broken

This Week’s Historical Theme: World War II 

 

9 July 1941 

 

A significant event throughout the history of World War II that occurred in June is the Enigma key on the Eastern front being broken. Enigma was the German's most sophisticated coding machine used to send secret information securely. The Enigma machine was invented in 1919 by Dutchman, Hugo Koch, and was originally intended for business purposes. However, the German army adapted it for their own use and deemed the coding system unbreakable. They were sorely mistaken as Dilly Knox, a former British WWI codebreaker, set up an Enigma Research Section at Bletchley Park. This is where Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman invented a machine, known as the Bombe, to significantly aid codebreaking. Here, the first wartime Enigma messages from the Western front were broken in January 1940.

 

With the German invasion of Russia in June 1941, the Allies needed to be able to intercept and interpret messages transmitted on the Eastern front. The first breakthrough occurred on 9 July 1941 when British cryptologists broke the key regarding German ground-air operations. Various keys continued to be broken over the course of the war by British codebreakers at Bletchley Park. The messages intercepted contained extremely important information, such as anticipating German anti-aircraft and antitank strategies against the Allies, as well as troop movements and planned offensives. Experts have suggested that the codebreakers at Bletchley Park may have shortened the war by as much as two years.

Want to find out more about the first Enigma codebreakers? Click here for more information, or here for more about Alan Turing. 

 

This Week in Argentina - Isabel Perón

 

This Week’s Historical Theme: Argentina

 

29 June 1974

 

A significant event throughout the history of Argentina is Isabel Perón taking office as Argentine President following her husband’s death. Isabel Perón was a former dancer and Juan Perón's third wife. Juan Perón was an army officer who joined a military coup in 1943 against Argentina's civilian government, establishing a military dictatorship. He continued to grow in influence becoming vice-president in 1944. Though he was ousted in 1945 by a subsequent coup and imprisoned, he was soon released due to mass worker organizations, which his mistress, Eva Duarte, helped organize. Following his release on 17 October, he married Eva, later known as Evita, much to his advantage as her immense popularity with the working class became a valuable political resource.

 

Juan Perón became president in 1946, winning widespread support with his vision of social justice and economic independence but became increasingly authoritarian, jailing his political opponents and censoring the press. Despite this, their immense popularity as a couple won him his 2nd term as president. However, when Evita died of cancer in 1952, support for him dwindled. Three years later he was ousted by yet another military coup. After 18 years in exile, he returned to Argentina in 1973 and won the presidency alongside his third wife, Isabel Peron, who was elected as vice president. In 1974, Juan died of heart disease, and she assumed the position as president, becoming the first female president in the world. Unfortunately, she was only president from 1974-76 as she inherited a nation suffering from serious economic and political strife and was not able to keep hold of power. Following a sharp rise in political terrorism, she was deposed by a right-wing coup d'état on 24 March 1976 and was imprisoned for 5 years on a charge of abuse of property. Upon her release in 1981, she settled in Madrid, Spain where she still lives to this day.

 

Want to find out more about Isabel Perón? Click here for more information, or here for more about Evita Perón.

 

This Week in Canada - Kim Campbell

This Week’s Historical Theme: Canada 

25 June 1993 

A significant event throughout the history of Canada is Kim Campbell being sworn in as Canada's first and only female prime minister. Born in British Columbia in 1947, Avril Phaedra Douglas "Kim" Campbell studied law and political science. She entered Canadian politics in 1986 when elected to the British Columbia legislature as a Conservative. In 1988 she was appointed minister of Indian affairs by Conservative Prime Minister Brian Mulroney (PM from 1984-1993), and in the same year she became Canada's first female attorney general. In this role she most notably aided the increase in gun control across the country. In 1993 she was appointed minister of national defence and veteran's affairs. Later that year, PM Brian Mulroney reigned due to the unpopularity of his economic reforms, giving Campbell the chance to run for Conservative Party leadership.

In a close contest, she was elected at a national conference on 13 June and took office on 25 June 1993 as the 19th prime minister and 1st female prime minister of Canada. Despite winning widespread public approval, she was forced to hold a general election in October the same year. Voters had become fed up with the Conservative Party due to the higher taxes and constitutional crisis under Mulroney. On 25 October, the Conservative Party's 9-year rule came to an end as they were reduced to 2 seats in the House of Commons. Campbell was discharged from office on 4 November 1993. Also having lost her seat, she retired from politics after her short 4-month tenure as the final Progressive Conservative prime minister.

Want to find out more about Kim Campbell? Click here for more information, or here for more about women leaders around the world.

 

 

This Week in The United States - Juneteenth

 This Week’s Historical Theme: The United States 

19 June 1865 

A significant event throughout the history of the United States that occurred in June is Juneteenth. This marked the day that Union soldiers arrived in Texas with the news that the American Civil War was over, and slavery was abolished. As a mixture of the words “June” and “nineteenth”, Juneteenth was coined as the day of commemoration for the end of slavery in America. Despite Abraham Lincoln issuing the Emancipation Proclamation two years prior in 1863, a lack of Union troops in the rebel states made it difficult to enforce. While some historians argue this delay was caused by poor communication in the time period, other historians believe the Texan slave owners purposely continued their practices.

On this day, 250,000 enslaved people were freed, many of whom left the state immediately in search of family members they had been separated from. For many African Americans, Juneteenth is considered an Independence Day. In 1979 Texas became the first state to make Juneteenth an official holiday, followed by many others. On 17 June 2021, President Joe Biden signed legislation officially declaring it a federal holiday.  

Want to find out more about Juneteenth? Click here for more information, or here for more about Biden's new legislation.

 

This Week in Word War II - Italy Declares War on France and Britain

This Week’s Historical Theme: World War II 

10 June 1940 

A significant event throughout the history of World War II that occurred in June was Italy's declaration of war against France and Great Britain. After withholding formal allegiance to either Germany or the Allies, Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy, allied with the former, perhaps due to German occupation in Paris. While Hitler was sceptical of this sudden break from neutrality, stating “First they were too cowardly to take part. Now they are in a hurry so that they can share in the spoils,” Mussolini claims he wanted in before the German occupation in Paris. In actuality, Mussolini was wary of waging an all-out war against Britain and France due to Italy's limited supply of raw materials.

 

While this was a hindrance for the Allies who had been attempting to ensure Italy's neutrality with promises of land in Africa, the Italian troops, who were mobilized in France on 20 June 1940, were easily held at bay by French forces. All Italians between the ages of 16 and 70 who had lived in Britain less than 20 years were immediately interned and President Roosevelt publicly promised his support for France and Britain. By September 1943, Italy had surrendered to the Allies and Mussolini was deposed from power.

Want to find out more about the role of Italy in WWII? Click here for more information, or here for more about Benito Mussolini’s motives. 

 

This Week in the United States - The American Civil War

This Week's Historical Theme: The United States

2 June 1865

A significant event throughout the history of the United States is the end of the American Civil War. The American Civil War (1861-65) was a war between the United States, and the 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The conflict started because of the uncompromising differences between the free states and the slave states concerning their views on what power the government should have to prohibit slavery. When Republican Abraham Lincoln became president in 1860, he pledged to keep slavery out of the territories. Subsequently, 7 slave states in the deep South seceded from the Union forming the Confederate States of America. The Lincoln administration refused to recognise the legitimacy of secession fearing it would discredit democracy and fragment the United States into several small, conflicting countries.

On 12 April 1861, at Fort Sumter in Charleston Bay, the Confederate army open fired on the federal garrison, claiming the fort as their own, and triggering the start of the Civil War. In response, Abraham Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for 75,000 volunteer soldiers to quell the Southern "insurrection", and 4 more slave states seceded and joined the Confederacy. Four years later, on 2 June 1865, Confederate General Edmund Kirby Smith, commander of Confederate forces west of the Mississippi, signed the surrender terms offered by Union negotiators. Smith's surrender is generally regarded as the formal end to the American Civil War as the last Confederate army ceased to exist.

Want to find out more about how the American Civil War ended? Click here for more information, or here for more about the after effects.